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UNIVERSITY  OF  ILLINOIS 


Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


BULLETIN  No.  147 


MAKKET  CLASSES  AND  GRADES  OF  MEAT 


BY  L,OUIS  D.  HAL,L, 


URBANA,  ILLINOIS,  JULY,  1910 


SUMMARY  OF  BULLETIN  No.  147 

1.  Objects:     To  describe  and  illustrate  the  standard  classes  and  grades  of 
beef,  veal,  mutton  and  pork  recognized  in  Chicago  wholesale  markets ;  and  to 
define  technical  terms  that  are  commonly  used  in  wholesale  meat  quotations. 

BEEF 

2.  The  general  divisions  of  the  beef  trade  are  (i)   Carcass  Beef,   (2)   Beef 
Cuts,  and  (3)  Cured  Beef  Products.  Page  155. 

3.  CARCASS   BEEF. — The   classes   are  Steers,  Heifers,  Cows  and  Bulls  and 
Stags.     They  differ  not  only  in  sex,  but  also  in  the  uses  to  which  they  are 
adapted.  Page  155. 

The  grades  within  these  classes  are  prime,  choice,  good,  medium,  common 
and  canners.  The  grades  are  based  on  differences  in  form,  thickness,  finish, 
quality,  soundness  and  weight.  Page  136. 

The  terms  "Native,"  "Western"  and  "Texas"  beef  each  include  various 
classes  and  grades  of  carcasses,  and  refer  to  general  differences  in  form,  finish 
and  quality.  Page  185. 

The  terms  "Yearlings,"  "Distillers,"  "Butcher"  and  "Kosher"  also  include 
various  classes  and  grades  of  beef,  and  merely  indicate  characteristic  features 
of  carcass  beef  use  by  certain  branches  of  the  trade.  Page  186. 

"Shipping  beef"  refers  to  that  sent  to  eastern  cities  and  consists  prin- 
cipally of  steers,  heifers  and  cows  of  medium  to  prime  grades.  Export  beef 
consists  largely  of  medium  to  prime  steers.  Page  189. 

4.  BEEF    CUTS. — The    "straight    cuts"    of    beef    are    Loins,    Ribs,    Rounds, 
Chucks,  Plates,  Flanks  and  Shanks..   (Fig.  22.)  Page  190. 

The  grades  of  beef  cuts  are  No.  i,  No.  2,  No.  3  and  Strippers.  The  grade 
of  a  beef  cut  depends  upon  its  thickness,  covering,  quality  and  weight. 

Page  190. 

5.  CURED  BEEF  PRODUCTS. — These  are  classified  as  (i)  Barreled,  (2)  Smoked 
and  (3)  Canned  Beef.  Page  208. 

Barreled  Beef  is  graded  as  Extra  India  Mess,  Extra  Plate,  Regular  Plate. 
Packet,  Common  Plate,  Rolled  Boneless,  Prime  Mess,  Extra  Mess,  Rump  Butt 
and  Mess  Chuck  Beef,  Beef  Hams  and  Scotch  Buttocks.  Page  209. 

Smoked  Beef  consists  of  Dried  Beef  Hams,  Dried  Beef  Clods  and  Smoked 
Brisket  Beef.  Page  210. 

Canned  Beef  consists  principally  of  Chipped  Beef,  Beef  Loaf,  Corned  and 
Roast  Beef.  Page  210. 

VEAL 

6.  The  divisions  of  the  veal  trade  are  (i)  Carcass  Veal  and  (2)  Veal  Cuts. 

Page  211. 

7.  CARCASS  VEAL. — The  grades  are  choice,  good,  medium,  light  and  heavy. 
The  grade  of  a  veal  carcass  depends  upon  its  form,  quality,  finish  and  weight. 

Page  211. 

The  terms  "Native"  and  "Western"  veal  each  include  several  grades  of 
calves,  and  refer  to  general  differences  in  form,  quality,  and  finish. 

Page  216. 

147 


8.  VEAL  CUTS. — The  regular  veal  cuts  are  Saddles  and  Racks.     They  are 
graded  as  choice,  good,  medium  and  common,  according  to  the  same  factors 
as  carcass  veal.     Fig.  36.)  Page  217. 

Subdivisions  of  the  regular  cuts  are  made  in  some  markets  and  similarly 
graded.  (Fig.  36.)  Page  217. 

MUTTON  AND  LAMB 

9.  The  divisions  of  the  trade  are   (i)    Carcass  Mutton  and  Lamb  and   (2) 
Mutton  and  Lamb  Cuts.  Page  222. 

10.  CARCASS   MUTTON  AND  LAMB. — The  classes  are    Wethers,  Ewes,  Bucks, 
Yearlings  and  Lambs.  Page  223. 

The  grades  within  these  classes  are  choice,  good,  medium,  common  and 
culls.  The  grades  are  based  on  differences  in  form,  quality,  covering  and 
weight.  Page  223. 

The  shipping  trade  goes  principally  to  cities  in  the  eastern  seaboard  states 
and  consists  largely  of  medium  to  choice  lambs.  Page  242. 

11.  MUTTON  AND  LAMB   CUTS. — The   leading  cuts   are   Saddles  and  Racks, 
together  with  Legs,  Loins,  Short  Racks,  Stews  and  Backs.     (Fig.  51.)     They 
are  graded  in  the  same  manner  as  carcass  mutton  and  lamb.  Page  245. 

PORK 

12.  Hog   products    are    described    under    three    heads:    (i)    Dressed    Hogs, 
(2)  Pork  Cuts  and  (3)  Lard.  Page  252. 

13.  DRESSED  HOGS. — The  classes  are  Smooth,  Heavy,  Butcher,  Packing  and 
Bacon  Hogs,  Shippers  and   Pigs.     The  classification   is  based   on   the  uses  to 
which  the  hogs  are  adapted.  Page  252. 

Distinct  grades  are  recognized  only  in  the  Packing  and  Bacon  classes,  the 
former  being  based  on  weight  and  the  latter  chiefly  on  quality  and  finish. 

Page  253. 

14.  PORK  CUTS. — The  classes  are  Hams,  Sides,  Bellies,  Backs,  Loins,  Shoul- 
ders, Butts  and  Plates,  and  Miscellaneous.     (Fig.  61.)  Page  263. 

Pork  cuts  are  quoted  as  fresh  pork,  dry-salt  and  bacon  meats,  barreled 
or  plain-pickled  pork,  sweet-pickled  meats,  smoked  meats,  "English"  meats 
and  boiled  meats,  respectively.  Page  263. 

The  grading  of  pork  cuts  is  much  more  complex  than  that  of  other  meats. 
It  involves  not  only  their  quality,  shape,  finish  and  weight,  but  also  the  styles 
of  cutting  and  methods  of  packing  used.  Page  267. 

15.  LARD. — The  grades  are  Kettle-Rendered  Leaf,  Kettle-Rendered,  Neutral, 
Prime  Steam,  Refined  and  Compound  Lard.    The  grading  is  based  on  the  kinds 
of  fats  included,  method  of  rendering,  color,  flavor  and  grain.  Page  288. 


148 


CARCASS  BEEP 


BEEF 

CLASSES 

STEERS 


HEIFERS 


Cows 


BULLS  AND 
STAGS 


GRADES 
r  PRIME  . . 

CHOICE  . 

GOOD  . . . 

MEDIUM 
-  COMMON 


PAGE 
...160 
...162 
. . . 163 
...165 
..  166 


PRIME  . . . 
CHOICE  . . 
GOOD 
MEDIUM  . 
COMMON . 

CHOICE  .  - 

GOOD 

MEDIUM  . 
COMMON  . 

CANNERS 

CHOICE  . . 

GOOD 

MEDIUM  . 
COMMON  . 


...168 
...170 
..171 
,..172 
...173 

. .   175 
.   176 

...177 
...178 
..  179 

...180 

...182 

,..183 

..184 


BEEF  CUTS 


CURED  BEEF 
PRODUCTS 


CARCASS  VEAL 


VEAL  CUTS 


FIG- 
URE 
1 

2,4 

3,4 

5 

6 

7 
8 
9 

10 
11 

12 
13 
14 
IS 
16 

17 
18 
19 
20 


Miscellaneous 

"Native"  "  Western"  and1-' Texas"  Beej  .185 
"Yearlings,"    "Distillers,"    "Butcher" 

and  "Kosher"  Beef 186  21 

Shipping  and  Export  Beef 189 

LOINS  No.  1,  No.  2,  No.  3,  STRIPPERS  195  23,  24 

RIBS                                                       "          198  25 

ROUNDS                                                 "          200  26 

CHUCKS                                                 "          203  28,  29 

PLATES                                             -    "          206  31 

FRANKS                                      206  32 

SHANKS       "                            207  33 

SuET 208 

f  BARRELED 208 

\  SMOKED 210 

(  CANNED 210 

VEAL 

CLASSES  GRADES 

CHOICE 214  34 

GOOD 214  34 

MEDIUM 215  35 

LIGHT 215  35 

HEAVY 215  35 

"Native"  and  "  Western"  Veal 

f  CHOICE 218  37a 

I    GOOD 218  37a 

SADDLES                                 MEDIUM  ....219  37b 

[_  COMMON 219  37b 

f  CHOICE 220  38a 

,    GOOD 270  38a 

*    MEDIUM 221  38b 

COMMON 221  38b 


149 


MUTTON  AND  LAMB 


CARCASS  MUTTON 

AND  LAMB 


MUTTON  CUTS 


LAMB  CUTS 


CLASSES 

GRADES 
f   CHOICE  .  .  . 

PAGE 

227 

FIG- 
URE 
40 

I    GOOD    

227 

40 

WETHERS 

|   MEDIUM  .  .  . 
[   COMMON    .  . 

r  CHOICE 

.227 
227 

.228 

40 

40 

41 

EWES 

GOOD    
4  MEDIUM.  .  .  . 

.228 
.229 

41 

42 

COMMON  .  .  . 
1  CANNERS  .  .  . 

(GOOD  

.229 
.229 

.232 

42 

42 

43 

BUCKS 

MEDIUM.  .  .  . 

.232 

43 

YEARNINGS 

COMMON...  . 

(CHOICE  
GOOD    
MEDIUM.  .  .  . 

.232 

.233 
.233 
.233 

44 
44 

r  CHOICE  — 
GOOD  

.235 

235 

45,46a 
45  46a 

LAMBS 

•<   MEDIUM.  .  .  . 
COMMON  .  .  . 

1     CUIvlyS      

.235 

.235 
.237 

45,46b 
45,46b 

{CHOICE  

.248 

52 

GOOD  

.248 

52 

LEGS 
LOINS 

1 

MEDIUM  
COMMON  .  .  . 

{CHOICE-  .... 

.248 
.248 

248 

52 

52 

52 

GOOD  

248 

52 

RACKS 

MEDIUM.  .  .  . 

248 

52 

SHORT  RACKS 
STEWS 

.  BACKS  

COMMON  .  .  . 

248 
249 

52 

{CHOICE  .... 

250 

53 

GOOD  

250 

53 

r  SADDLES 

MEDIUM.  .  .  . 

250 

53 

LEGS 
LOINS 

COMMON  .  .  . 
{CHOICE  

250 
250 

53 
53 

GOOD  

250 

53 

RACKS 
SHORT  RACKS 
STEWS 

BACKS.  .  . 

MEDIUM  
COMMON  

250 
250 

252 

53 
53 

150 


PORK 


FIG- 
CLASSES  GRADES  PAGE   URE 


DRESSED 
HOGS 


BUTCHER  HOGS  .  .  . 

255 

55 

(HEAVY  

256 

56,  57 

PACKING  HOGS 

MEDIUM  

256 

56 

LIGHT  

758 

(CHOICE  

259 

58 

GOOD  

26U 

59 

COMMON  

260 

59 

SHIPPERS  

.  .  .     262 

60 

PIGS   . 

.  262 

60 

PORK  CUTS 


HAMS 


SIDES 


BELLIES 


REGULAR  SHORT-CUT  269  62,  64 

SKINNED 269  62 

BONELESS  ROLLED  . . .  270  65 

REGULAR  L,ONG-CuT  .  269  63 

STAFFORD          269  63 

MANCHESTER 269  63 

ITALIAN 269  63 


SHORT  RIBS 

REGULAR 271 

JOBBING 273  66 

HARD 272 

EXTRA 273  66 

SQUARE     272 

SHORT  CLEARS 

REGULAR 273          66 

SQUARE 274 

EXTRA 273  66 

ENGLISH  BACON  SIDES 

WILTSHIRE   275  67 

CUMBERLAND 275  67 

DUBLIN 275  67 

LONG  RIB 274 

LONG  CLEAR 275  67 

YORKSHIRE 275  67 

STAFFORDSHIRE  .  275  67 


DRY-SALT 277  68 

SWEET-PICKLE !77  68 

BREAKFAST-BACON..  277  68,70 

ENGLISH 277  68 


151 


PORK— CONTINUED 


CLASSES 


PORK  CUTS 
CONTINUED     * 


BACKS 


L,OINS 


SHOULDERS 


BUTTS  AND  PLATES 


MISCELLANEOUS 


KETTLE  RENDERED 


GRADES      PAGE 

f  SHORT  RIB  ...........  227 

J  SHORT  CLEAR  ........  277 

I  SHORT  FAT  ...........  277 

^  IVONG  FAT  ........  279 


REGULAR 
L/OIN  ROLLS 


273 
280 


ROUGH 282 

REGULAR 280 

PICNIC 284 

NEW  YORK  CUT 282 

SKINNED 282 

SQUARE 282 

NEW  ORLEANS  CUT  . . .  282 
BONELESS  ROLLED — 283 


BOSTON  STYLE  BUTTS  282 
MILWAUKEE  STYLE 

BUTTS  ........  283 

BONELESS  BUTTS  .....  282 

BuFFALOSTYLE  BUTTS283 
NEW  YORK  STYLE 

BUTTS  ......  ...  282 

PICNIC  BUTTS  .........  282 

DRY-SALT  BUTTS  .....  284 

SQUARE-CUT  BUTTS.  .  .284 
REGULAR  PLATES  .....  282 

CLEAR  PLATES  ........  282 

BACK  PLATES  .........  285 


MESS  PORK  ..........  273 

BELLY  PORK  .........  286 

BACK  PORK  ..........  286 

SHOULDER  PORK  .....  287 

SPARERIBS  ............  284 

TRIMMINGS  .........  288 


lyARD 


L/EAF  

288 

KETTLE  RENDERED  .  . 

288 

(  No.  1  

289 

NEUTRAL 

}  No.  2  

289 

(  CHOICE  

289 

PRIME  STEAM 

(  REGULAR  

289 

REFINED   

.  .    .     290 

COMPOUND  .  . 

..290 

FIG- 
URE 

69 
69 
69 
61 


66b 


72 

74 
72 

72 
72 

72 


73 


73 


73 
73 

75 
75 
73 

73 


66a 


75 


152 


MARKET  CLASSES  AND  GRADES  OF  MEAT 

BY  LOUIS  D.  HALL,  ASSISTANT  CHIEF  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

The  objects  of  this  bulletin  are  to  describe  and  illustrate  the 
standard  classes  and  grades  of  beef,  veal,  mutton  and  pork  of  the 
Chicago  wholesale  trade,  and  to  define  various  technical  terms  that 
are  commonly  used  in  wholesale  meat  quotations. 

The  most  intelligent  production  of  animals  for  slaughter  in- 
volves a  knowledge  of  the  standard  requirements  of  the  meat  mar- 
ket. Breeders,  feeders  or  investigators  who  consider  only  the  cost 
of  production  and  the  market  value  of  the  live  animal,  ignoring 
the  demands  of  the  meat  trade,  overlook  one  of  the  most  important 
factors  that  affect  the  live  stock  market  and  may  thus  fail  to  fol- 
low the  most  rational  lines  of  improvement  in  breeding  and  feed- 
ing. 

Live  stock  producers,  however,  have  exceedingly  limited  op- 
portunities for  becoming  familiar  with  this  subject.  The  rapid 
development  of  transportation,  refrigeration,  slaughtering  and 
packing  facilities  has  led  to  the  present  system  of  large  markets 
separated  by  distances  which  make  them  practically  inaccessible 
to  a  large  majority  of  stockmen.  Further,  since  animals  are  sold 
by  live  weight  the  shipper  feels  concerned  with  their  value  on  foot 
rather  than,  their  dressed  yield.  Finally,  definite  classifications 
are  lacking  in  some  branches  of  the  meat  trade,  and  the  classifica- 
tions in  use  are  often  complicated  by  variations  in  market  condi- 
tions. The  trade  has  become  so  vast  and  complex  that  it  is  very 
difficult — and  has  become  increasingly  difficult  with  each  succeed- 
ing year — for  one  not  engaged  in  the  meat  business  to  secure  a 
definite  knowledge  of  its  various  branches.  The  present  tendency 
toward  a  more  highly  centralized  organization  of  the  retail  meat 
trade  in  some  localities  increases  still  further  its  inaccessibility 
to  the  live  stock  producer.  As  a  result  of  these  conditions  meat 
dealers  and  consumers  are  far  more  familiar  with  the  subject  than 
meat  producers.  The  following  descriptions,  therefore,  are  in- 
tended primarily  to  be  of  value  to  breeders  and  feeders  who  do 
not  have  opportunities  to  secure  the  information  directly.  With 

153 


154  BULLETIN  No.   147  [July, 

an  understanding  of  meat  trade  requirements  it  is  possible  for  a 
stockman  to  judge  the  carcass  yield  and  quality  of  his  animals  as 
intelligently  as  buyers  at  the  stock  yards ;  because  his  knowledge 
of  the  feeds  used,  length  of  feeding  period  and  gains  made,  are 
as  essential  in  making  such  estimates  as  the  apparent  form,  con- 
dition and  quality  of  the  fat  animal,  upon  which  points  the  buyer 
must  chiefly  rely. 

The  descriptions  herein  presented  are  based  on  data  secured 
by  the  writer  in  a  personal  investigation  at  wholesale  meat  mar- 
kets at  the  Union  Stock  Yards,  Chicago,  which  are  the  largest  es- 
tablishments of  their  kind  in  the  world;  also  at  prominent  whole- 
sale and  retail  markets  in  Chicago  and  other  cities  which  are  sup- 
plied from  the  large  houses  at  the  Union  Stock  Yards.  The  en- 
gravings are  from  photographs  taken  under  the  writer's  direction 
at  the  markets  and  at  this  Experiment  Station.  The  officials  and 
salesmen  of  the  large  packing  houses  and  the  retail  dealers,  job- 
bers, and  other  expert  authorities  who  were  consulted  gave  the 
most  willing  assistance.  The  valuable  suggestions  and  informa- 
tion furnished  by  these  gentlemen  are  gratefully  acknowledged. 

The  classifications  under  which  meats  are  quoted  differ  slightly 
in  different  American  cities  according  to  the  nature  of  the  sup- 
plies received  and  the  peculiarities  of  the  local  trade.  They  are 
essentially  alike,  however,  at  all  the  great  packing  centers  of  this 
country,  and  since  most  American  wholesale  markets  are  sup- 
plied from  these  centers,  the  classification  as  presented  may  be  re- 
garded as  standard. 

Market  classifications  of  meat,  like  those  of  live  stock,  are 
more  or  less  flexible  because  of  the  varied  and  varying  conditions 
which  affect  the  industry.  In  those  branches  of  the  trade  in  which 
the  current  market  terms  are  vague  and  the  classifications  loose, 
the  writer  has  attempted  to  present  the  subject  as  systematically 
as  possible  without  exaggerating  the  classification  actually  in  use. 
It  is  impracticable  to  include  here  all  the  minor  and  intermediate 
grades  of  meat  within  each  class,  and  this  bulletin  describes  only 
those  classes  and  grades  which  may  be  considered  standard  or  rep- 
resentative. It  is  also  difficult  to  describe  a  grade  of  meat  inde- 
pendently of  others  within  its  class.  Generally,  therefore,  each 
grade  should  be  studied  in  connection  writh  those  above  and  be- 
low it. 

Attention  is  called  to  the  fact  that  the  following  classifications 
are  those  of  the  wholesale  meat  trade  and  not  of  the  live  stock  mar- 
ket, and  that  they  are  described  independently  of  the  latter.  The 
weights  given  refer  to  dressed  carcasses  and  cuts,  and  in  no  case 
to  live  animals.  Altho  in  some  instances  the  classes  of  meat 
correspond  to  those  of  live  stock,  they  are  in  the  main  quoted  and 


MARKET  CLASSES  AND  GRADES  OF  MEAT  155 

sold  quite  separately  and  differently  from  the  live  animals  from 
which  they  are  obtained.  It  is  outside  the  objects  of  this  bulletin 
to  consider  the  relation  of  the  animal  to  its  meat  products.  It  is 
hoped,  however,  that  it  will  assist  materially  in  placing  such  in- 
vestigations on  a  more  exact  and  uniform  basis  than  would  oth- 
erwise be  possible,  and  that  it  will  increase  the  number  and  sig- 
nificance of  future  investigations  along  this  line. 

BEEF 

The  general  divisions  of  the  beef  trade  are  ( i )  Carcass  Beef, 
(2)  Beef  Cuts  and  (3)  Cured  Beef  Products.  The  term  Fresh 
Beef  includes  carcass  beef  and  beef  cuts.  It  refers  both  to  chilled 
beef,  which  is  held  in  refrigeration  at  36°  to  38°  F.  for  a  few  days 
or  weeks  only,  and  to  frozen  beef,  which  is  stored  at  10°  to  15°  F., 
usually  for  several  months.  About  four-fifths  of  the  beef  trade 
consists  of  fresh  beef,  the  remainder  being  converted  into  various 
products  such  as  barreled,  smoked  and  canned  beef,  sausage 
meats,  etc. 

CARCASS  BEEF 

About  one-half  the  supply  of  fresh  beef  sold  in  wholesale  mar- 
kets is  carcass  beef  (sides  and  quarters).  The  two  sides  or  halves 
of  a  carcass  are  termed  a  "cattle".  In  the  right  or  "closed"  side 
the  inner  surface  of  the  kidney  fat  is  attached  to  the  loin  while 
in  the  left  or  "open"  side  it  is  free  and  a  portion  of  the  "skirt" 
(diaphragm)  extends  to  the  tenth*  rib,  forming  the  'hanging  ten- 
derloin". The  two  sides  are  nearly  equal  in  weight,  but  the  open 
one  is  often  one  percent  the  heavier.  When  sides  are  sold  sep- 
arately no  discrimination  in  price  is  made  between  rights  and  lefts. 

Sides  are  quartered  or  "ribbed"  between  the  twelfth  and  thir- 
teenth ribs*  when  taken  from  the  chillroom  either  for  shipment 
or  local  delivery,  except  export  and  "Boston"  cattle,  which  are 
cut  between  the  tenth  and  eleventh  ribs.  The  quarters  are  called 
"fores"  and  "hinds".  In  shipping  and  export  trade,  the  four  cor- 
responding quarters  are  regarded  as  a  carcass  of  beef;  that  is, 
they  are  sold  as  "straight  cattle"  rather  than  miscellaneous  sides 
or  quarters.  In  "car-route"  and  local  city  trade  carcass  beef  is 
to  a  considerable  extent  handled  as  separate  "fores"  and  "hinds". 

Regular  hindquarters  contain  47  to  49  percent  of  the  carcass 
weight  and  fores  51  to  53  percent,  the  average  being  about  48 
percent  hinds  and  52  percent  fores.  In  "exports"  the  quarters 
are  practically  equal  in  weight.  Hinds  are  quoted  about  25  per- 
cent higher  than  fores  in  the  cold  months  and  up  to  40  percent 

*Beef  carcasses  contain  thirteen  pairs  of  ribs.  It  is  customary  to  number 
them  from  the  neck  backward. 


156  BULLETIN  No.  147  [July, 

higher  in  summer.  The  influence  of  season  upon  the  price  is  due 
to  the  large  amount  of  boiling  and  stewing  pieces  in  the  fore- 
quarters,  which  meats  are  both  more  palatable  and  more  econom- 
ical to  cook  during  the  winter  season  than  in  warm  weather  and 
consequently  are  in  greater  demand  at  that  time. 

Carcass  beef  which  is  thick  and  fat  enough  so  that  the  entire 
side  can  be  sold  over  the  butcher's  block  in  retail  cuts  is  known  as 
"block  beef"  or  "side  beef".  "Cutters"  are  dressed  cattle  that  are 
not  sufficiently  thick-fleshed  nor  fat  to  be  entirely  utilized  by  the 
retailer,  but  contain  certain  wholesale  cuts  (loins  and  ribs)  which 
may  be  so  used.  "Canners"  are  those  carcasses  from  which  none  of 
the  regular  wholesale  cuts  suitable  for  butcher-shop  use  can  be 
obtained,  and  which,  consequently,  must  be  divided  into  smaller 
cuts  such  as  boneless  fresh  meats  and  cured  beef  products. 

CLASSES  AND  GRADES  OE  CARCASS  BEEF 

The  classes  of  carcass  beef  are  Steers,  Heifers,  Cows,  and' 
Bulls  and  Stags.    This  classification  is  based  not  merely  upon  diff- 
erences in  sex,  but  also  upon  the  general  uses  to  which  they  are 
adapted,  as  described  in  connection  with  each  class. 

Within  the  four  classes,  side  beef  is  graded  as  prime,  choice, 
good,  medium,  common  and  canners.  In  the  markets  the  highest 
grade  is  sometimes  termed  "extra  choice"  or  "fancy"  beef;  the 
term  "fair"  is  frequently  used  instead  of  medium,  and  canner  sides 
are  often  called  "culls". 

Grading  Carcass  Beef 

The  grade  to  which  a  carcass,  side  or  quarter,  belongs  depends 
upon  its  form,  thickness,  finish,  quality,  soundness  and  weight. 

By  form  is  meant  the  shape  or  "build"  of  the  side,  its  gen- 
eral outlines  and  the  proportions  of  its  different  parts.  Ideal  con- 
formation consists  of  compactness,  i.e.,  good  width  in  proportion 
to  length ;  short  shanks  and  neck ;  and  full  rounds,  loin  and  ribs. 
It  is  associated  more  or  less  closely  with  a  proper  degree  of  thick- 
ness and  is  also  partially  dependent  upon  the  covering  or  finish  of 
the  carcass.  Large  plates,*  "hollow"  loins,  prominent  hips,  thin 
chucks  or  "rangy"  loosely  coupled  sides  are  especially  discrim- 
inated against.  A  "rimmy"  side  is  one  showing  an  unusual  de- 
gree of  curvature  in  the  ribs,  giving  the  side  a  warped  appear- 
ance and  corresponding  to  paunchiness  in  live  cattle. 

Thickness  of  a  carcass  refers  to  the  amount  of  lean  flesh  it 


*For  explanation  of  cuts  see  Fig.  22,  page  191. 


/p/o]  MARKET  CLASSES  AND  GRADES  OF  MEAT  157 

carries.  Thick-meated  loin  and  ribs  and  full,  compact  rounds  and 
chucks  are  especially  essential.  "Built  like  a  cart-horse"  describes 
the  fleshing  demanded  in  high-grade  carcasses.  In  the  case  of 
quartered  sides  the  depth  of  lean  meat  on  the  ribs  is  readily  seen. 
It  is  true  that  thickness  depends  somewhat  upon  the  finish  of  the 
carcass;  but  there  is  a  clear  distinction  between  thickness  due  to 
fatness  and  thickness  due  to  muscular  flesh.  Also,  quality  and 
firmness  of  flesh  must  be  considered  in  judging  thickness.  For 
example,  carcasses  of  distillery  cattle  often  have  a  plump,  thick 
appearance  which  is  deceptive  in  that  the  flesh  is  not  firm.  Only 
the  knife  can  completely  reveal  the  thickness  of  a  side  and  the  pro- 
portions of  fat  and  flesh.  The  appearance  of  an  uncut  side  often 
misleads  the  most  expert  dealers  with  regard  to  the  actual  thick- 
ness of  flesh. 

Finish  corresponds  to  "condition"  in  the  live  animal;  in  other 
words,  it  refers  to  the  amount  and  distribution  of  fat  on  the  .car- 
cass, and  to  the  quality  of  flesh  so  far  as  it  depends  upon  the  de- 
gree of  fatness.  Perfect  finish  involves  a  smooth  covering  of  firm, 
white  fat  over  the  entire  carcass,  with  the  greatest  depth  along 
the  back  (about  one-fourth  inch  on  5oo-pound  carcasses,  up  to 
three-fourths  inch  on  Qoopound  cattle)  ;  a  white  brittle  "kidney" 
of  medium  size;  and  a  lining  of  fat  deposited  in  flakes  or  rolls 
on  the  inner  surface  of  the  ribs.  The  rounds  and  shanks  are 
covered  last  in  the  process  of  fattening,  hence  these  parts  are 
indications  of  the  last  degree  of  finish.  The  fat  must  not  be  ex- 
cessive at  any  point,  especially  over  the  loin  and  ribs,  because 
this  indicates  either  an  overdone  condition  or  a  tendency  toward 
thick  crusty  covering  without  good  marbling,  i.e.,  mixture  of  fat 
thru  the  lean  flesh.  The  highest  quality  of  beef  is  that  which 
contains  the  largest  proportion  of  well  marbled  lean  with  the 
minimum  of  excess  fat,  but  a  certain  amount  of  the  latter  is  in- 
dispensable in  prime  beef.  In  the  lowest  grade,  outside  fat  is  en- 
tirely lacking.  A  carcass  carrying  soft,  "gobby"  fat  sells  at  a 
discount.  A  "green"  or  "grassy"  appearance  of  the  flesh  indicates 
a  marked  lack  of  finish;  it  is  a  watery,  flabby  condition  which  is 
characteristic  of  grass-fed  cattle. 

Quality  in  beef  is  so  closely  associated  with  form,  thickness 
and  finish  that  the  term  is  often  used  loosely  to  cover  all  three 
points.  In  a  more  definite  sense,  however,  quality  has  reference 
to  size,  color  and  softness  of  the  bones,  smoothness  and  grain  of 
flesh,  color  and  general  appearance  of  carcass,  and  an  absence  of 
coarseness  in  general.  A  carcass  may  be  thick,  fat  and  of  excellent 
form  and  yet  fall  below  the  highest  grade  because  it  lacks  quality 
in  one  or  more  of  the  above  particulars. 


158  BULLETIN  No.   147  [July, 

Quality  of  flesh  in  a  carcass  depends  chiefly  upon  its  smooth- 
ness, grain  and  color.  Rough,  uneven  flesh  detracts  from  the  ap- 
pearance and  usefulness  of  the  beef.  Coarse  grained,  stringy, 
fibrous  flesh  is  usually  an  indication  of  poor  breeding,  staggi- 
ness,  advanced  age  or  improper  nourishment  of  the  animal.  Lack 
of  grain  and  firmness,  on  the  other  hand,  go  with  beef  that  lacks 
the  age  required  for  mature  beef.  Very  young  beef  seldom  has 
"substance"  or  marbling,  and  is  high  in  percentage  of  water.  It 
is  considered  by  beef  experts  that  carcasses  of  cattle  under  fifteen 
to  eighteen  months  old  are  not  generally  mature  enough  for  prime 
beef  cuts,  and  those  above  three  to  four  years  old  are  usually  past 
the  point  of  highest  quality,  being  too  coarse  in  bone  or  grain  of 
meat  or  uneven  in  finish.  There  are,  of  course,  individual  ex- 
ceptions outside  these  limits  of  age. 

Quality  of  bone  is  judged  principally  from  the  chine,  breast- 
bone and  ribs.  (Fig.  22.)  The  bones  should  be  as  small  as  con- 
sistent with  the  weight  of  the  carcass.  They  are  also  a  valu- 
able indication  of  the  age  and  consequently  the  quality  of  fl~sh 
of  a  carcass.  The  "buttons"  or  cartilages  on  the  ends  of  the  chine 
bones  (spinous  processes)  are  soft  and  white  in  carcasses  of  cat.ie 
up  to  one  and  one-half  or  two  years  old,  and  the  bones  or  pro- 
cesses to  which  they  are  attached  are  soft  and  red  with  blood 
vessels.  Thereafter  the  "buttons"  or  "pearls"  gradually  ossify, 
and  at  three  years  have  changed  to  a  dark  gray  color  but  are 
somewhat  distinct  from  the  bone  proper  until  about  the  fifth  year. 
Similar  cartilages  on  the  breast-bone  disappear  thru  ossification 
before  the  third  or  fourth  year.  The  breast-bone,  backbone,  ribs 
and  pelvis  gradually  harden  and  whiten,  especially  after  the  age 
of  eighteen  months,  and  the  segments  of  the  rump  bone  unite, 
forming  an  apparently  continuous  surface.  The  bones  of  cows 
and  heifers  turn  hard  and  white  earlier  than  those  of  steers.  In 
splitting  the  carcasses  of  old  cows,  bulls  and  oxen  the  chine  bones 
are  so  flinty  as  to  break  and  crush  rather  than  cut,  which  gives  the 
side  a  ragged  appearance. 

In  color  the  fat  should  be  a  clear  white  and  the  flesh  a  bright, 
rich  red.  A  "fiery"  carcass  is  one  the  surface  of  which  is  spotted 
with  highly  colored  blood  vessels,  due  to  incomplete  bleeding  when 
slaughtered.  This  indicates  a  similar  condition  within  the  lean 
and  such  sides  usually  "rib"  dark.  It  may  be  due  either  to  a 
feverish  condition,  fatigue  from  long  shipment,  pregnancy,  or  ex- 
citement at  time  of  slaughter.  A  dark  yellow  fat  is  characteristic 
of  Jersey  and  Guernsey  cattle;  it  is  also  believed  to  be  an  in- 
dividual peculiarity  of  some  cattle,  and  to  be  due  to  the  feed  in 
some  cases.  It  is  not  always  an  indication  of  poor  quality 
but  is  generally  associated  with  dark  colored  and  poorly  marbled 


/p/o]  MARKET  CLASSES  AND  GRADES  OF  MEAT  159 

meat.  "Spotters"  are  carcasses  in  which  brown  or  black  spots 
are  found  in  the  flesh,  varying  in  size  from  mere  specks  to  one- 
eighth  inch  in  diameter.  These  spots  are  sometimes  found  on 
the  flank  and  skirt  (diaphragm)  but  usually  are  not  visible  until 
the  side  is  cut  open  in  quartering.  They  are  usually  found  in 
choice  native  beef  and  their  cause  is  not  known.  Carcasses  are 
generally  sold  subject  to  the  return  or  discount  of  those  which  cut 
out  spotted  or  very  dark.  Such  defects  detract  about  25  percent 
from  the  value  of  a  carcass. 

Soundness  is  considered  in  grading  all  beef  carcasses,  but  most 
of  all  in  the  higher  grades.  A  large  percentage  of  carcasses  are 
sold  at  a  discount  or  sent  to  the  cutting  room  on  account  of  bruises, 
which  injure  both  the  appearance  and  keeping  quality  of  the  meat, 
altho  as  a  rule  the  injured  portion  is  trimmed  off  in  the  dressing 
process.  Bruises  are  found  most  commonly  on  the  hips,  shoulders, 
and  plates,  these  being  the  most  exposed  parts  of  the  carcass. 
Such  bruises  are  usually  inflicted  in  shipment  of  cattle  to  market 
or  in  handling  them  in  the  stock  yards.  Unnecessary  blows  over 
the  backs  and  loins  of  cattle  cause  the  discounting  of  many  car- 
casses which  would  otherwise  grade  high.  Cattle  which  have 
been  shipped  long  distances,  such  as  Texas  and  Western  range 
cattle,  are  bruised  to  a  considerable  extent,  and  droves  of  horned 
cattle  show  more  carcass  bruises  than  others,  as  a  rule.  Large 
brands  are  often  visible  on  the  carcass,  sometimes  sufficiently  to 
diminish  its  value.  "Bone-sour",  which  is  caused  by  decomposition 
of  the  "joint  water"  of  the  hip-bone,  is  a  common  defect  in  heavy 
carcass  beef.  Especial  care  must  be  taken  in  the  case  of  export  beef 
both  as  to  "bone-sour"  and  bruises,  either  of  which,  however 
slight,  excludes  a  side  from  export  trade.  Over-ripe  beef,  which 
has  been  held  in  storage  too  long  or  with  insufficient  refrigeration 
or  ventilation  is  also  considered  unsound.  If  well  covered  with  fat 
it  may  be  allowed  to  mold  on  the  outside,  otherwise  a  moldy  con- 
dition indicates  that  the  meat  is  tainted. 

Weight  is  of  importance  in  grading  beef  in  the  sense  that  the 
heavier  carcasses  are  generally  better  in  form,  thickness,  finish 
and  quality  than  the  lighter  ones,  and  because  different  classes  of 
retail  trade  differ  as  to  the  size  of  the  steaks,  roasts  and  other  cuts 
which  they  demand.  Consequently  a  system  of  grading  by  weight 
is  of  convenience  to  both  buyer  and  seller.  In  shipping  and  export 
trade,  carcass  beef  is  assorted  according  to  the  following  weights : 
(i)  over  950  lb.;  (2)  850-950  Ib. ;  (3)  750-850  Ib. ;  (4)  650- 
750  lb.;  (5)  600-650  lb.;  (6)  550-600  lb. ;  (7)  500-550  lb. ; 
(8)  under  500  lb.  The  heaviest  carcasses  seldom  exceed  1050 
pounds;  the  minimum  weight  is  about  250  pounds,  but  compar- 
atively few  beef  carcasses  are  sold  in  averages  below  400  pounds. 


160 


BULLETIN  No.  147 


Heifers  and  cows  are  separated  into  only  four  or  five  grades  rang- 
ing from  450  pounds  or  under,  to  750  pounds  or  over.  Bulls  and 
stags  are  not  handled  as  carcass  beef  sufficiently  to  necessitate 
grading  by  weight,  and  the  bulk  of  those  sold  in  the  carcass  weigh 
700  to  950  pounds.  The  influence  of  weight  in  determining  the 
market  grade  of  a  carcass  varies  with  different  branches  of  the 


FIG.  l.    PRIME  STEER. 


jp/o]  MARKET  CLASSES  AND  GRADES  OF  MEAT  161 

trade  and  with  the  season,  as  will  be  noted  in  describing  the  var- 
ious classes  of  beef. 

As  to  the  relative  importance  of  the  above  factors  in  grading 
carcass  beef,  it  may  be  said  that  in  the  higher  grades  finish  is 
particularly  essential,  with  thickness,  quality  and  form  of  about 
equal  importance.  In  the  medium  and  lower  grades,  finish  is  a 
minor  item  and  quality  is  of  less  relative  importance  than  thickness 
and  form.  Weight  and  soundness  are  more  important  in  the 
higher  than  in  the*  lower  grades. 

STEERS 

Steer  carcasses  are  identified  by  the  cod  fat,  and  generally  by 
their  full,  fleshy  rounds  and  loins,  heavier,  coarser  bones,  and 
short  necks  as  compared  with  cows.  They  show  more  quality 
and  finish  than  any  other  class,  and  are  sold  as  carcass  beef  more 
extensively  than  any  other  class  except  heifers.  The  grades  are 
Prime,  Choice,  Good,  Medium  and  Common. 

Prime  steers  ("fancy"  or  "extra  choice")  completely  fill  all  the 
requirements  of  carcass  beef  described  on  pages  156  to  159.  They 
are  the  "show  cattle"  of  the  beef  trade.  They  weigh  900  to  1 100 
pounds  (dressed)  altho  it  is  not  uncommon  to  find  sufficient  finish 
and  quality  in  carcasses  below  800  pounds  to  grade  prime.  Finish 
is  of  special  importance  because  this  grade  of  beef  supplies  a  trade 
which  requires  rich,  tender  steaks  and  roasts  even  at  the  expense  of 
considerable  waste  tallow.  The  demand  for  a  limited  amount  of 
prime  beef  is  comparatively  constant  and  uniform.  It  supplies 
the  highest  class  of  city,  shipping  and  export  trade.  Excepting 
a  few  weeks  at  the  holiday  season,  however,  little  distinction  is 
made  between  fancy  and  choice  beef.  See  Fig.  i. 

Choice  steers  are  excellent  in  shape  and  thickness  but  lack  the 
high  finish  demanded  by  the  most  select  holiday  trade.  They  are 
the  highest  grade  of  dressed  beef  found  regularly  in  the  market, 
and  are  uniformly  compact,  thick  and  smooth.  Any  indications 
of  coarseness  or  a  marked  lack  of  finish  bar  a  bullock  from  this 
grade.  They  are  most  in  demand  from  October  until  Lent.  The 
bulk  weigh  800  to  950  pounds.  Choice  cattle  that  are  shipped 
or  exported  are  handled  in  the  quarter,  while  those  used  locally 
are  sold  chiefly  as  No.  i  wholesale  cuts  except  the  plates  and 
flanks,  which  are  largely  sold  as  barreled  beef.  See  Figs.  2,  4. 

Good  steers  are  somewhat  deficient  in  either  finish,  thickness  or 
form,  but  at  the  same  time  have  sufficient  covering  to  show  that 
they  have  been  fattened  on  a  grain  ration.  Or,  they  may  be  thick 
and  wrell  finished  but  coarse  in  bone  and  flesh,  or  show  too  much 
age.  They  commonly  weigh  650  to  850  pounds.  Steer  carcasses 


162 


BULLETIN  No.   147 


[July, 


weighing  750  to  800  pounds  generally  sell  lower  than  heavier 
cattle  of  the  same  quality  and  finish  because  they  are  too  light 
for  the  jobbing  or  hotel  trade  and  too  heavy  for  the  retailer. 
This  grade  of  beef  is  used  largely  in  the  shipping  trade,  and  is 
also  sold  to  hotels  and  restaurants  that  cater  to  commercial  rather 
than  fashionable  patrons.  See  Figs.  3,  4. 


FIG.  2.    CHOICE  STEER. 


MARKET  CLASSES  AND  GRADES  OF  MEAT 


163 


Medium  steers  are  so  graded  because  of  a  deficiency  in  any  or 
all  of  the  points  mentioned  in  reference  to  the  higher  grades,  but 
to  a  more  marked  extent.  As  a  rule  they  are  about  as  fat  as  good 
steers  but  many  have  no  covering  over  round  or  chuck,  and  a  com- 
mon feature  of  the  grade  is  coarseness  of  quality  and  conforma- 
tion. Some  slightly  staggy  cattle  are  included.  Heavy  plates,  hol- 
low loins,  prominent  hips  and  shoulders,  light  rounds,  long  necks, 
dark  color,  "grassy"  flesh  or  other  equally  objectionable  points 
are  found  in  this  grade.  They  are  the  lowest  grade  of  bullocks 
that  are  ordinarily  sold  in  the  carcass,  and  the  majority  of  the 
supply  is  sold  to  retail  markets.  The  wholesale  cuts  of  medium 


FIG.  3.    GOOD  STEER. 


164 


BULLETIN  No.  147 


[July, 


FIG.  4.    A,  CHOICE  STEER.    B,  GOOD  STEER. 


MARKET  CLASSES  AND  GRADES  OF  MEAT 


165 


FIG.  5.    MEDIUM  STEER. 


166 


BULLETIN  No.   147 


[July, 


FIG.  6.    COMMON  STEER. 


167 

Western  steers  are  frozen  in  large  quantities  during  the  fall  sea- 
son. The  'general  run  weigh  550  to  750  pounds  and  some  plain 
carcaeses  are  included  up  to  900  pounds.  See  Fig.  5. 

Common  steers  have  but  little  outside  fat  and  kidney  suet. 
They  are  angular,  long  in  shank  and  neck,  and  generally  dark 
colored  or  "grassy"  in  flesh.  Many  sides  which  are  disqualified 
from  higher  grades  by  reason  of  bruises,  stagginess,  "off  color" 
(fiery,  spotted  or  yellow),  or  other  defects,  are  sold  as  common. 
(Fig.  6.)  They  average  450  to  600  pounds.  When  sold  as  carcass 
beef  they  are  taken  by  jobbers  or  retailers  who  supply  a  cheap 
trade.  Ordinarily,  however,  they  enter  the  trade  as  wholesale 
cuts  and  barreled  beef.  They  are  the  lowest  grade  of  steer  sides 
with  the  exception  of  an  inconsiderable  number  of  culls  used  for 
canning  purposes.  The  latter  are  comparable  in  quality  with  com- 
mon and  canner  cows.  The  proportion  of  common  carcasses  is 
much  smaller  in  the  steer  class  than  in  others  because  thin  steers 
are  extensively  shipped  from  the  market  to  the  country  as  feed,- 
ers,  whereas  nearly  all  cattle  of  other  classes  sold  at  the  large  mar- 
kets are  slaughtered. 

HEIFERS 

Heifer  carcasses  are  distinguished  from  steers  by  the  bag 
(udder),  and  as  a  rule  they  have  smaller  bones,  slightly  more  angu- 
lar rumps,  less  development  of  lean  flesh,  and  average  somewhat  less 
in  weight.  While  the  percentage  of  carcass  weight  in  loins  and 
ribs  is  frequently  as  high  in  heifers  as  in.  steers,  the  greater  thick- 
ness of  lean  meat  in  those  parts  of  the  steer  is  greatly  to  his  ad- 
vantage. Further,  the  tendency  in  heifer  beef  is  -to  carry  the  fat 
more  largely  in  the  form  of  kidney  suet  or  "gobby"  fat  than  steers 
in  the  same  degree  of  finish ;  they  are  also  flatter  in  the  loin,  fatter 
in  the  plate  and  more  "necky"  than  steers.  Accordingly  heifer 
beef  is  rated  lower  in  the  market  than  steers  of  corresponding 
grades.  The  average  heifer  carcass  is  lighter  in  weight  and  lower 
in  grade  than  the  average  steer.  Experts  are  not  agreed  as  to  the 
comparative  quality  of  the  two  classes  of  beef,  and  it  may  be  said 
that  differences  in  color,  texture  and  "substance"  of  flesh  are  not 
marked.  The  prevailing  notion  that  heifer  beef  is  in  relatively 
higher  favor  in  England  than  in  America  is  true  only  so  far  as 
the  best  grades  are  concerned.  Heifer  sides  differ  from  cows  in 
their  immaturity,  indicated  by  softer  bones  and  brighter  color  of 
flesh ;  in  shape,  especially  their  less  angular  rumps,  fuller  loins, 
and  shorter  necks;  and  in  their  smoother  finish  and  smaller, 
firmer  bags.  Heifers  are  sold  principally  in  the  side  or  quarter, 
owing  to  the  demand  for  this  beef  for  retail  butcher  trade.  A 
considerable  proportion  of  this  class  are  yearlings  (page  186), 
averaging  400  to  600  pounds.  The  regular  run  of  heifers  weigh 


BULLETIN  No.   147 


350  to  750  pounds,    and    are   graded    Prime,    Choice,    Good   and 
Medium. 

Prime  heifers  are  selected  according  to  practically  the  same 
requirements  as  prime  steers,  with  special  reference  to  full  loins 
and  rounds,  compact  form,  smooth  finish,  short  neck  and  light 
udder.  They  seldom  have  quite  the  thickness  of  flesh  found  in 
steers.  The  few  carcasses  of  this  grade  which  appear  in  the  mar- 


FIG.  7.    PRIME  HEIFER. 


/p/o]  MARKET  CLASSES  AND  GRADES  OF  MEAT  169 

kets  are  usually  seen  in  lots  of  choice  and  prime  bullocks,  in  which 
case  they  may  sell  at  a  uniform  price  with  the  latter.  When  sold 
separately  they  are  discriminated  against  by  most  American  deal- 
ers, on  the  ground  that  the  steaks  and  roasts  do  not  cut  out  as 
thick  in  the  lean  as  those  cut  from  steers  and  that  the  proportion 
of  waste  fat  is  greater.  Since  this  discrimination  is  not  made  in 
British  trade,  owing  to  its  greater  demand  for  fat  steaks  and 
roasts,  prime  and  choice  heifer  carcasses  are  frequently  exported. 
See  Fig.  7. 

Choice  heifers  are  similar  to  choice  steers  except  in  the  points 
mentioned  in  the  preceding  paragraph.  As  a  class  they  are  im- 
perfect in  finish  and  quality  rather  than  in  form  and  thickness 
as  compared  with  prime  heifers.  Like  the  latter,  they  must  be 
strictly  "maiden"  heifers ;  that  is,  the  carcass  must  bear  no  evidence 
of  pregnancy.  They  are  sold  to  city  and  country  retail  dealers, 
shipped  east,  and  occasionally  exported  to  Great  Britain.  See 
Fig.  8. 

Good  heifers.  These  are  sides  that  are  clearly  above  the  av- 
erage of  the  class  but  lack  either  the  finish,  thickness  or  conform- 
ation, or  all,  required  of  a  choice  side.  They  must  have  sufficient 
covering  and  kidney  fat  to  show  that  they  have  been  fattened  on  a 
grain  ration.  Local  retail  dealers  use  a  great  deal  of  this  grade 
of  beef  and  much  of  it  is  shipped  to  the  smaller  cities.  See  Fig.  9. 

Medium  heifers.  The  medium  or  average  heifer  carcass  is 
plain  in  conformation  and  deficient  in  flesh  and  finish.  A  marked 
deficiency  in  either  of  the  three  points  renders  a  side  medium 
which  would  otherwise  grade  good,  and  many  of  this  grade  are 
of  the  heavy  weights  (700-800  pounds)  and  somewhat  "cowislr' 
in  general  appearance.  They  are  the  lowest  grade  of  heifer  sides 
that  can  be  entirely  sold  over  the  block  of  the  ordinary  retailer, 
and  are  to  some  extent  made  into  wholesale  cuts  before  being 
sold  by  the  killer.  This  beef  supplies  the  second  class  trade  of 
wrhich  most  retailers  have  more  or  less,  and  is  used  for  the  bulk 
of  the  trade  in  cheaper  markets.  See  Fig.  10. 

Common  heifers.  Common  heifers  have  little  covering  of  fat 
and  only  sufficient  thickness  of  flesh  to  be  used  as  cutters.  This 
grade  also  includes  many  heavy  heifers  which  are  still  more 
"baggy"  and  "cowislr"  than  medium  heifers.  In  fact  little  dis- 
tinction is  made  between  common  heifers  and  cows  as  the  dif- 
ferences are  much  less  apparent  than  in  higher  grades,  and  in 
many  cases  are  quite  immaterial.  (Fig.  n.)  Very  few  heifers 
are  found  among  canners,  and  those  that  are  so  found  are  well 
represented  by  the  illustration  and  description  of  canner  cows. 


170 


BULLETIN  No.   147 


[July, 


FIG.  8.    CHOICE  HEIFER. 


/9/o] 


MARKET  CLASSES  AND  GRADES  OF  MEAT 


171 


FIG.  9.    GOOD  HEIFER. 


172 


BULLETIN   No.   147 


[July, 


FIG.  10.    MEDIUM  HEIFER. 


MARKET  CLASSES  AND  GRADES  OF  MEAT  173 


FIG.  11.    COMMON  HEIFER. 


174  BULLETIN  No.   147  [July, 

Cows 

The  angular  form,  long  neck,  hard,  white  bones  and  lack  of 
thickness  of  the  majority  of  cow  carcasses  make  them  easy  to  dis- 
tinguish from  other  classes  of  beef.  The  bag  is  trimmed  off  as 
closely  as  possible  in  dressing  cows  but  it  is  generally  large  and 
"baggy"  enough  to  indicate  the  class  of  the  carcass.  The  bones 
are  also  hard  and  therefore  clo  not  split  as  smoothly  as  heifers 
or  steers,  especially  at  the  chine  and  loin.  Fat  cow  carcasses  often 
carry  their  tallow  as  kidney  fat  and  in  bunches  on  the  back  and 
rump  rather  than  an  even  covering;  and  the  flesh  is  seldom  as 
well  marbled  as  that  of  heifers  or  steers.  Fat  is  especially  im- 
portant in  cows  because  such  beef  generally  requires  "ageing"  or 
ripening  to  render  it  tender,  and  good  covering  is  essential  for 
this  purpose.  A  large  percentage  of  the  carcasses  of  this  class 
are  cutters  and  canners,  with  a  correspondingly  smaller  proportion 
suitable  for  "side  beef".  Cow  sides  which  have  the  amount  of 
fat  required  in  prime  steers  and  heifers  are  as  a  rule  either  crusty 
or  lumpy,  so  that  no  prime  grade  is  recognized  in  the  markets. 
The  grades  are  Choice,  Good,  Medium,  Common  and  Canners. 
Choice  cows  average  600  to  900  pounds,  canners  250  to  500,  and 
other  grades  accordingly.  Many  of  the  heavy  weights,  however, 
are  graded  lower  than  choice  on  account  of  waste  fat. 

Choice  cows  have  as  much  fat  as  choice  heifer  sides  but  are  not 
usually  as  good  in  shape  nor  thickness,  the  loin  being  flatter,  neck 
and  shanks  longer  and  rump  more  prominent.  They  are  less  num- 
erous than  the  same  grade  of  heifers,  and  the  few  that  come  into 
the  markets  are  seen  mainly  during  the  fall  and  early  winter. 
Too  much  age,  lack  of  loin  and  rib  covering,  lumpy  fat  and  a 
heavy  bag  are  defects  each  of  which  bar  many  carcasses  from  this 
grade.  Choice  cows  are  taken  in  the  carcass  by  a  good  class  of 
retail  trade,  and  are  also  cut  up  to  quite  an  extent  in  wholesale 
markets  for  No.  i  loins  and  ribs.  See  Fig.  12. 

Good  cows.  This  grade  is  above  the  average  of  cow  sides  in 
general  quality.  Deficient  finish  is  found  in  all  cow  beef  grading 
below  choice,  but  kidney  fat  and  outside  covering  are  not  en- 
tirely lacking  in  either  the  good  or  medium  grades.  Good  cow 
sides  are  chiefly  used  for  the  cheaper  trade  of  retail  markets.  See 
Fig.  13- 

Medium  cows.  While  these  carcasses  have  the  quality  and  cov- 
ering necessary  in  a  low  grade  of  dressed  beef,  they  are  better 
adapted  to  the  cut  beef  trade  and  are  generally  so  used.  Medium 
cows  must  have  a  moderate  amount  of  kidney  fat  and  a  slight  cov- 
ering over  the  ribs,  loin  and  rump.  Many  of  them  are  plainly 


jp/o]  MARKET  CLASSES  AND  GRADES  OF  MEAT  175 


FIG.  12.    CHOICE  Cow. 


176 


BULLETIN  No.   147 


[July, 


deficient  in  thickness  of  flesh,  especially  over  the  loin  and  ribs, 
are  rougher  about  the  hips  and  rump,  lighter  in  the  rounds  and 
longer  in  the  neck  than  good  cows.  See  Fig.  14. 


FIG.  13.    GOOD  Cow. 


MARKET  CLASSES  AND  GRADES  OF  MEAT 


177 


Common  cows.  These  are  inferior  in  conformation  to  steers 
of  the  same  grade,  being  on  the  "shelly"  order,  i.e.,  poorly  fleshed, 
bare  on  the  ribs  and  warped  in  shape,  showing  the  effects  of  re»- 
peated  pregnancy.  They  are  very  prominent  at  hips  and  rump, 
nearly  devoid  of  covering  and  kidney  fat,  white  and  flinty  in  bone 
and  decidedly  wanting  in  thickness.  This  grade  also  includes  a 
few  carcasses  that  are  medium  to  good  in  thickness  and  shape  but 


FIG.  14.    MEDIUM  Cow. 


178  BULLETIN   No.   147  [July, 

inferior  in  color,  finish  or  general  quality.  They  are  used  prin- 
cipally as  cutters  and  for  stripped  and  frozen  cuts,  barreled  beef, 
etc.  See  Fig.  15. 

Conner  cows  are  the  lowest  grade  of  this  class,  and  make  up 
the  bulk  of  the  beef  used  for  canning  purposes.  Typical  canner 
sides  have  no  covering,  no  kidney  fat,  and  in  most  cases  only 
sufficient  flesh  to  hold  the  bones  together,  so  that  the  shape  of  such 
carcasses  is  of  the  most  inferior  order.  The  flesh  is  generally  very 


FIG  15.     COMMON  Cow. 


MARKET  CLASSES  AND  GRADES  OF  MEAT 


179 


dark  in  color.  This  grade,  as  well  as"the  one  above  it,  also  con- 
tains many  bruised  sides,  some  of  which  are  otherwise  medium. 
About  one-third  of  the  carcass  is  used  for  canning-  and  sausage 

o  o 

purposes,  and  the  remainder  is  "stripped"  and  sold  in  the  form  of 
boneless  fresh  beef  cuts  and  barreled  beef.  See  Fie;.  16. 


FIG.  16.     CAXXER  Cow. 


180 


BULLETIN  No.   147 

BULLS  AND  STAGS 


[July, 


Dressed  bulls  are  easily  recognized  by  the  prominent  neck, 
heavy  shoulders,  thick  rounds,  dark  color,  coarse-grained  flesh, 
and  the  absence  of  cod  fat.  Rough  conformation  and  hard  bones 
are  also  common  characteristics  of  bull  sides.  Bruises,  bad  color, 
and  "bone-sour"  account  for  the  low  grade  of  many  bulls  and 


FIG  17.    CHOICE  BULL. 


jp/o]  MARKET  CLASSES  AND  GKADES  OF  MEAT  181 

stags.  Many  stags  approach  steers  in  form,  quality  and  finish, 
while  others  are  difficult  to  distinguish  from  bulls.  Altho  various 
grades  of  beef  are  found  in  this  class,  the  proportion  of  medium 
and  lower  grades  is  much  larger  than  in  the  steer  and  heifer 
classes,  and  comparatively  few  bull  sides  are  adapted  to  the  dressed 
beef  trade.  As  a  class  bulls  have  "dark  coarse  flesh  with  no  marb- 
ling, which  when  made  into  sausage,  absorbs  a  large  percentage 
of  water,  and  when  smoked  shrinks  but  little.  Hence  the  majority 
of  bull  carcasses  in  the  market  are  partially  used  for  sausage,  and 
the  rounds  made  into  smoked  beef  hams.  The  class  is  for  the 
most  part  deficient  in  covering  and  finish,  tho  in  thickness  of 
flesh  bull  sides  as  a  class  are  decidedly  superior  to  cows.  The 
regular  grades  are  Choice,  Good,  Medium  and  Common.  In 
weight,  choice  carcass  bulls  average  900  to  1200  pounds,  common 
bulls  550  to  800,  and  other  grades  in  proportion,  tho  in  some  cases 
the  grade  is  quite  independent  of  the  weight. 

Choice  bulls  resemble  good  to  choice  steers  in  thickness,  color 
and  maturity,  but  are  heavier  in  neck  and  rounds,  and  the  finish  is 
never  equal  to  that  of  steers  of  choice  grade.  Occasionally,  how- 
ever, a  choice  stag  carcass  is  seen  which  is  very  difficult  to  dis- 
tinguish from  a  steer.  700  to  goo-pound  bulls  of  choice  quality 
are  used  by  some  retail  butchers  for  their  cheap  trade,  and  can  be 
so  used  to  best  advantage  during  the  colder  months,  when  boil- 
ing meat  is  more  in  demand  than  in  the  warm  seasons.  Even  this 
grade  of  bulls,  however,  can  ordinarily  be  cut  up  with  more  profit 
to  the  wholesaler  than  can  be  realized  by  selling  them  in  sides  or 
quarters,  because  wholesale  cuts  do  not  bear  as  much  evidence  of 
the  sex  and  general  quality  of  the  carcass  as  beef  in  the  side. 
There  is  also  a  considerable  export  trade  in  choice  and  good  car- 
cass bulls  of  heavy  weights.  See  Fig.  17. 

Good  bulls.  This  grade  is  distinguished  from  choice  bulls  by 
deficiencies  in  quality,  conformation  and  color.  To  grade  good, 
however,  a  bull  carcass  must  be  moderately  fat  and  smooth  and 
not  too  coarse  nor  dark-colored  in  flesh.  A  very  small  proportion 
of  good  bulls  sell  in  the  carcass  to  the  cheapest  dressed  beef  trade 
but  they  are  principally  utilized  for  beef  cuts,  both  "straight"  and 
boneless,  and  the  cheaper  parts  of  the  carcass  for  sausage  and 
smoked  or  barreled  beef.  See  Fig.  18. 

Medium  bulls.  Sides  of  this  grade  often  have  the  muscular 
thickness  required  in  side  beef  but  lack  sufficient  covering  of  fat. 
They  are  rougher  in  appearance  than  good  bulls  and  are  usually 
characterized  by  coarse  fle-~h,  hard  white  bones,  and  very  heavy 
necks  and  rounds.  Some  of  the  ribs  and  loins  go  to  a  cheap  clas> 
of  restaurant  trade,  ?nd  the  other  parts  are  largely  used  as  barreled 
and  smoked  beef.  When  common  bulls  are  scarce  medium  grades 
are  more  largely  us?d  for  cured  beef  products.  See  Fig.  19. 


182 


BULLETIN  No.   147 


[July, 


FIG.  18.    GOOD  Buu,. 


MARKET  CLASSES  AND  GRADES  OF  MEAT 


183 


FIG.  19.     MEDIUM  Bui/r,. 


184 


BULLETIN  No.   147 


FIG.  20.     COMMON  BULL. 


/p/o]  MARKET  CLASSES  AND  GRADES  OF  MEAT  185 

Common  or  Bologna  bulls.  Bull  carcasses  which  have  no 
covering  of  fat  and  are  plain  or  rough  in  form  but  still  fairly  thick 
fleshed  are  known  as  bolognas.  They  include  many  bruised  sides, 
and  most  of  this  grade  are  very  dark  in  color  and  flinty  in  bone. 
The  lean  and  dry  nature  of  these  carcasses  adapts  them  to  the 
manufacture  of  bologna  sausage  and  dried  beef.  A  considerable 
proportion  of  such  sides  also  yield  ribs  and  loins  which  can  be 
sold  straight  or  stripped.  They  average  600  to  900  pounds.  See 
Fig.  20. 

A  small  percentage  of  the  supply  of  dressed  bulls  and  stags 
grade  as  canners.  The  description  of  canner  cows  applies  in  all 
essential  points  to  the  corresponding  grade  of  bulls,  and  their  use 
is  similar. 

"NATIVE",  "WESTERN"  AND  "TEXAS"  BEEE 

In  connection  with  the  preceding  classification,  carcass  beef 
may  be  further  designated  as  "Natives",  "Westerns"  or  "Colo- 
rados",  and  "Texas".  These  terms  are  used  in  the  same  sense, 
tho  scarcely  to  the  same  extent,  in  the  beef  trade  as  in  the  live  cattle 
market.  The  distinct  differences  which  formerly  separated  them 
have  become  much  less  marked  in  recent  years  owing  to  im- 
provement in  quality  of  beef  produced  in  the  West  and  South- 
west. It  must  be  understood  that  these  names  do  not  apply  to  all 
beef  marketed  from  the  section  or  state  indicated.  They  are  suf- 
ficiently distinct,  however,  to  give  each  term  a  reasonably  definite 
meaning  in  market  circles;  and  they  are  sometimes  applied  even 
to  wholesale  beef  cuts  (page  194). 

"Native"  carcass  beef  differs  from  "Western"  principally  in 
shape,  finish,  thickness  and  age.  It  is  fatter  and  firmer  in  flesh, 
showing  the  effect  of  grain  feeding;  more  compact  in  form, 
shorter  in  shanks  and  neck,  thicker  fleshed  in  loin,  ribs,  rounds 
and  chucks,  more  mature  in  proportion  to  age  and  much  better 
in  marbling  and  general  quality.  Natives  consist  chiefly  of  med- 
ium to  choice  steers,  heifers  and  cows  of  the  heavier  weights,  but 
they  include  all  grades  of  beef  and  are  used  either  as  dressed  beef, 
cutters  or  canners.  They  make  up  over  85  percent  of  the  carcass 
beef  trade  at  Chicago. 

"Westerns"  or  "Colorados"  are  carcasses  that  are  compara- 
tively "rang}-''  or  loose-coupled  in  form,  "grassy"  or  "green"  in 
appearance,  with  coarser-grained  flesh,  larger,  whiter  bones,  lighter 
kidneys,  wider  plates,  more  prominent  shoulders  and  lighter, 
longer  rounds  than  Natives.  They  do  not  run  as  fat  as  Natives, 
and  most  of  them  are  "hipped'  or  bruised  on  the  plates  and  ribs. 
The  flesh  just  underneath  the  shoulder  blade  is  almost  invariably 
dark  colored,  as  is  observed  when  the  chuck  is  taken  off.  The 


186  BULLETIN  No.   147  [July, 

rump  bone  is  generally  thicker  and  more  prominent  than  in 
Natives.  Heavy,  well-finished  "Colos"  or  "Collies",  as  they  are 
called  by  salesmen,  frequently  yield  loins  and  ribs  that  can  be 
substituted  for  those  of  Natives.  By  far  the  greater  proportion  of 
carcasses  in  this  class  are  medium  and  common  grades,  with  a 
considerable  percentage  of  cows,  and  a  smaller  proportion  of  heif- 
ers than  in  Native  cattle.  Heavy  steers  (750  to  1000  pounds)  of 
this  description  are  usually  termed  "Colorados"  and  the  500  to 
75O-pound  steers  "Westerns".  Western  cows  weigh  450  to  700 
pounds.  Most  spayed  heifers  are  Westerns;  they  are  a  very 
small  percent  of  the  number  slaughtered,  and  little  or  no  difference 
in  price  is  made  as  compared  with  open  heifers.  The  supply  of 
Westerns  is  confined  principally  to  the  period  from  July  to  De- 
cember, which  is  known  in  the  beef  trade  as  the  "cattle  cutting 
season".  They  are  sold  to  a  considerable  extent  as  dressed  beef, 
but  are  also  cut  up  and  stored  in  freezers  in  the  form  of  No.  2  and 
No.  3  loins,  ribs,  rounds  and  chucks;  also  strips,  rolls,  clods, 
tenderloins,  etc.,  and  to  some  extent  in  quarters.  These-  cuts  are 
sold  from  the  freezers  mainly  from  Februray  to  June,  when  med- 
ium and  lower  grades  of  fresh  beef  are  scarce.  The  plates,  flanks 
and  rumps  are  packed  as  barreled  beef,  and  the  rounds  as  "beef 
hams".  "Colorado"  beef  constitutes  only  about  10  percent  of  the 
trade. 

"Texas"  beef  refers  to  light-weight  carcasses,  more  deficient 
in  form  and  finish  than  "Westerns",  and  more  "grassy"  or 
"washy"  in  flesh,  together  with  hard  bone  and  dark  color,  show- 
ing considerable  age.  Many  "Texas"  sides  are  severely  bruised 
due  to  long  shipments  of  the  live  cattle.  Large  scars,  resulting 
from  branding  the  hide  too  deeply,  are  visible  on  the  carcasses  in 
some  cases.  They  grade  from  canners  to  medium  or  good.  Only 
5  percent  or  less  of  the  annual  supply  at  Chicago  consist  of 
"Texas"  beef,  most  of  this  beef  being  handled  at  Kansas  City, 
St.  Louis  and  Ft.  Worth.  It  is  in  season  from  June  to  October. 
A  larger  proportion  of  this  beef  than  of  "Westerns"  is  cut  for 
freezers.  Both  as  carcass  beef  and  as  beef  cuts  it  is-  taken  mainly 
by  small  retail  markets.  The  supply  consists  principally  of  three- 
and  fourvyear-old  steers  and  aged  cows  averaging  as  follows : 
light  steers,  500  Ib.  or  less;  medium  steers,  500-600  Ib. ;  heavy 
steers,  over  600  Ib. ;  light  cows,  400  Ib.  or  less ;  medium  cows, 
4001-500  Ib. ;  heavy  cows,  over  500  Ib. 

"YEARLINGS",  "BUTCHER",  "KOSHER"  AND  "DISTILLERY  CATTLE". 

"Yearlings"  are  carcasses  of  young  steers  and  heifers  of  400 
to  700  pounds  dressed  weight,  with  sufficient  quality  and  finish  to 
be  used  as  block  beef.  Their  immature  age  is  indicated  by  light 
colored  flesh  and  fat,  and  bones  that  split  soft  and  red,  especially 


MARKET  CLASSES  AND  GRADES  OF  MEAT 


187 


FIG.  21.     YEARLING  (Goon  STEER), 


188  BULLETIN   No.    147  [July, 

the  chine  and  brisket.  They  are  graded  choice,  good  and  medium, 
and  seldom  have  sufficient  finish  or  maturity  to  be  termed  prime. 
The  term  yearling  is  applied  more  especially  to  good  and  choice 
young  carcasses  weighing  450  to  650  pounds.  Thickly  fleshed 
loin  and  ribs,  short,  compact  body  and  high  finish  with  one-fourth 
to  one-half  inch  of  fat  on  the  back  and  some  covering  on  the  chucks 
and  rounds  are  important  points  in  choice  yearlings.  These  cattle 
are  in  special  favor  with  retail  dealers  who  supply  family  trade, 
owing  to  the  fact  that  they  contain  small  but  tender  steaks  and 
roasts  with  a  small  proportion  of  fat.  See  Figs.  7,  21. 

"Butcher"  Cattle,  as  the  term  is  applied  to  carcass  beef,  are 
those  which  are  suited  to  "butcher  shop"  trade.  The  typical  re- 
tail meat  market  requires  carcasses  from  which  can  be  cut  i  to 
1 1/2 -pound  steaks  and  4  to  6-pound  roasts  with  no  waste  fat  and  of 
quality  commensurate  with  a  moderate  price.  The  grades  of 
carcass  beef  which  yield  such  cuts  are  heifers,  steers  and  cows  of 
good,  medium  and  common  grades,  averaging  400  to  700  pounds 
dressed  weight.  For  the  better  class  of  trade,  good  and  choice 
yearlings,  especially  heifers,  are  most  in  demand.  Texas  steers  of 
the  heavier  weights  are  also  used.  The  bulk  of  the  city  butcher 
trade,  however,  is  supplied  with  light  steers  and  heifers  of  medium 
to  choice  grades.  Cows  are  largely  cut  up  or  sold  to  small  re- 
tail markets. 

"Kosher"  cattle  are  dressed  beeves  that  have  been  slaughtered, 
inspected,  cleansed  and  labeled  in  accordance  with  Jewish  rites, 
kosher  being  the  Hebrew  word  for  clean.  The  throat  is  cut  with- 
out stunning  the  animal,  the  vital  organs  are  specially  inspected, 
and  the  carcass  washed  and  labeled  under  the  supervision  of  a 
rabbi.  If  not  used  within  three  days,  the  carcass  is  rewashed, 
and  must  be  washed  each  three  days  until  the  twelfth  day  after 
slaughter,  when  it  is  no  longer  "Kosher".  Only  the  fore  quarters 
are  used  by  orthodox  Jews,  and  the  principal  grades  of  cattle 
used  for  Kosher  beef  are  medium  to  choice  steers,  cows  and  heif- 
ers. This  trade  is  confined  almost  entirely  to  large  cities,  es- 
pecially New  York  and  Chicago.  Under  the  restrictions  imposed 
by  Kosher  rules,  it  is  impracticable  to  ship  this  beef  to  eastern 
cities  from  Chicago  and  it  is  therefore  a  local  trade,  the  eastern 
supply  being  shipped  on  foot. 

"Distillers"  are  steers,  bulls  and  stags  that  have  soft,  "puffy", 
"washy"  flesh  together  with  the  "high_color"  that  is  characteristic 
of  cattle  fattened  on  distillery-slops.  They  are  thick-meated  and 
fat,  but  the  flesh  does  not  become  as  firm  after  chilling  as  that  of 
corn-fed  beef  and  the  fat  does  not  "set"  as  well  owing  to  the  soft 
feed  and  close  housing  employed  in  fattening  and  the  consequent 
tendency  toward  a  feverish  condition  of  the  carcass.  The  surface 


/9/o]  MARKET  CLASSES  AND  GRADES  OF  MEAT  189 

fat  has  a  smooth,  glossy,  yellowish  appearance.  On  cutting  the 
fore  quarters  the  flesh  along  the  shoulder  blades  appears  very 
dark.  Distillers  consist  principally  of  good  and  medium  steers 
and  medium  to  choice  bulls  averaging  700  to  900  pounds.  They 
are  best  adapted  to  the  hotel  and  restaurant  trade  of  large  cities 
owing  to  their  heavy  weight,  and  a  large  proportion  of  the  supply 
is  shipped  east.  They  are  found  in  the  market  from  April  to  June 
and  a  few  thruout  the  summer  months. 

SHIPPING  AND  EXPORT  BEEF  TRADE 

The  fresh  beef  trade  of  eastern  cities  draws  upon  Chicago 
for  all  grades  of  carcasses  described  in  the  foregoing  outline,  but 
principally  steers,  heifers  and  cows  of  medium  to  prime  grades. 
The  demand  in  each  city  is  as  varied  as  the  population,  and  with 
improved  transportation  and  refrigerating  facilities  any  grade  of 
fresh  beef  can  be  delivered  in  good  condition.  Certain  cities,  how- 
ever, are  characterized  by  special  demands  which  are  recognized  by 
the  trade.  Boston  is  the  best  market  for  very  heavy  fat  steers, 
and  discriminates  less  against  excessively  fat  bullocks  than  any 
other  city.  The  term  "Bostons"  is  generally  applied  to  such  car- 
casses. Carcass  beef  shipped  to  Boston  is  quartered  between  the 
tenth  and  eleventh  ribs.  New  York  is  celebrated  for  its  extensive 
trade  in  Kosher  beef,  probably  four-fifths  of  the  beef  koshered  in 
this  country  being  used  in  and  near  that  city.  This  accounts  for 
the  large  proportion  of  live  cattle  to  dressed  beef  shipped  from 
Chicago  to  New  York,  and  for  the  large  proportion  of  medium 
and  lower  grades  in  shipments  of  dressed  beef  to  that  city.  Balti- 
more demands  a  comparatively  large  proportion  of  the  lower 
grades  of  beef.  Philadelphia,  Pittsburg,  Washington,  Cleveland 
and  Buffalo  use  an  assortment  of  grades  similar  to  that  sold  in 
Chicago.  Refrigerator  car-routes  which  supply  small  cities  and 
towns  thruout  the  country  handle  principally  the  grades  of  beef 
enumerated  under  "Butcher  Cattle".  Much  low-grade  beef  is  used 
in  mining  and  lumbering  districts,  and  orders  from  such  districts 
are  largely  for  strictly  lean  carcasses  such  as  common  light  cows 
and  bulls. 

Export  carcass  beef  consists  chiefly  of  medium  to  choice  steers. 
Heavy  heifers,  cows,  bulls  and  stags  of  the  good  and  choice  grades 
are  also  exported.  Bruised  sides  are  discarded,  and  care  is  ob- 
served in  testing  for  soundness,  especially  "bone-sour".  Export 
cattle  are  dressed  differently  from  domestic  beef  in  that  the  sides 
are  not  scribed,*  the  hind  quarter  has  three  ribs,  and  the  hanging- 

*Scribing  consists  in  cutting  the  chine-bones  the  length  of  the  fore  quarter 
on  a  line  midway  between  the  back-bone  and  the  outer  surface  of  the  carcass. 
This  permits  the  chine-bones  to  bend  outward  when  the  beef  "sets",  and  gives 
the  side  a  thicker  appearance  than  otherwise. 


190  BULLETIN   No.   147  l-/»/y. 

tenderloin  and  skirt  are  trimmed  off.  The  quarters  are  wrapped 
separately  in  muslin.  This  trade  has  greatly  diminished  during 
recent  years. 

BEEF  CUTS 

As  previously  stated,  wholesale  fresh  beef  trade  is  about 
equally  divided  between  carcass  beef  and  beef  cuts.  The  latter 
are  sold  both  as  "straight  cuts"  and  as  subdivisions  thereof.  The 
"straight  cuts"  handled  in  Chicago  markets  are  Loins,  Ribs, 
Rounds,  Chucks,  Plates,  Flanks  and  Shanks  (Fig.  22).  The  loin 
is  separated  from  the  round  at  the  hip  joint.  The  flank  is  cut 
from  about  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth  rib  to  the  opposite  lower 
corner  of  the  loin.  The  shank  is  sawed  off  just  below  the  sec- 
ond knuckle  (shoulder  joint).  The  plate  is  cut  off  on  a  line  ex- 
tending from  about  the  middle  of  the  twelfth  rib  thru  the  point  at 
which  the  shank  is  removed.  The  rib  and  chuck  are  separated 
between  the  fifth  and  sixth  ribs. 

The  standard  grades  of  straight  cuts  are  No.  I,  No.  2,  and  No. 
j.  Cuts  that  are  too  deficient  in  thickness  and  quality  to  be  used 
on  the  butcher's  block,  and  which  are  consequently  made  into 
boneless  cuts,  barreled  beef,  sausage,  etc.,  are  termed  strippers. 

Grading     Beef  Cuts 

The  factors  that  determine  the  grade  of  a  wholesale  cut  of 
beef  are  its  thickness,  covering,  quality  and  weight. 

Thickness  of  lean  flesh  is  of  self-evident  importance.  Con- 
sumers demand  a  large  proportion  of  lean  in  steaks  and  roasts  of 
whatever  grade.  Lean  beef  has  a  much  higher  market  value  than 
fat  or  bone,  hence  thickness  of  flesh  is  of  first  consequence,  even  in 
the  cheaper  cuts  used  for  boiling  and  stewing.  The  depth  of 
flesh  is  usually  an  indication  of  the  class  of  beef  from  which  a 
cut  has  been  made,  especially  in  distinguishing  steer  cuts  from 
those  of  .cows.  The  shape  and  general  appearance  of  a  cut  also 
depend  very  largely  upon  its  thickness. 

Covering  or  depth  of  fat  is  most  essential  in  the  more  valuable 
cuts,  viz.,  the  ribs  and  loins,  because  they  supply  the  trade  that  is 
most  particular  in  regard  to  quality  of  meat ;  arid  the  highest 
quality  of  lean  can  be  secured  only  at  the  expense  of  a  liberal 
amount  of  fat.  Those  who  are  accustomed  to  buying  round  and 
chuck  steaks  expect  little  or  no  fat.  As  explained  in  referring 
to  carcass  beef,  the  lower  grades  are  often  entirely  wanting  in 
outside  covering;  and  in  second-class  retail  markets  it  is  not  un- 
common to  see  ribs  and  loins,  as  well  as  cheaper  cut?,  from  which 
the  fat  is  conspicuously  absent. 


MARKET  CLASSES  AND  GRADES  OF  MEAT 


191 


1,  2,3.  Round 
4,  5,  6.  Loin 

7.  Rib 

8.  Chuck 

9.  Flank 

10.  11.  Plate 

12.  Shank 

13.  Suet 


FIG.  22.    BEEF  CUTS. 


1.        Hind  shank 


1,  2,  3,  4, 


2.        Round,  R.&S.  off   5,  6,  9. 


3,  Rump 

4,  5.  Loin  end 

6.       Pinbone  loin 

5,  6.  Flatbone  loin 

10.  Navel 

11.  Brisket 


7,  8,  10, 
11,12. 
7,8. 
7,10. 


a.  Aitch-bone 
Hind  quarter      b.  Rump-bone 

c.  Crotch 
Fore  quarter     d.  Cod 


Back 
Piece 


e.  Chine-bones 

f.  "Buttons" 


8,  11,  12.         Kosher  chuck    g-.  Skirt 


8,  10,  11,  12.   Triang-le 


h.  Breast-bone 


192  BULLETIN  No.   147  [July, 

Quality  in  beef  cuts  refers  particularly  to  the  grain  and  firm- 
ness of  the  lean,  the  marbling  (distribution  of  fat  thru  the  lean), 
and  the  proportion  of  bone  and  other  waste  in  the  cut.  The  grain 
of  meat  consists  in  its  fineness  of  fiber  or  texture  and  the  cut  sur- 
face should  be  glossy,  smooth  or  "velvety"  in  appearance  and 
touch,  as  opposed  to  stringiness  and  coarseness.  By  firmness,  in 
this  connection,  is  meant  "substance"  or  "body",  as  distinguished 
from  a  soft,  gluey,  or  "washy"  consistency  of  the  flesh.  It  is  an  in- 
dication of  tenderness,  juiciness  and  maturity.  On  the  other  hand, 
firmness  due  to  a  dry,  stringy  condition  of  the  flesh  is  objection- 
able. Ripening  or  "ageing"in  the  cooler  improves  the  firmness, 
tenderness  and  flavor  of  beef,  provided  it  is  sufficiently  fat.  Very 
lean  beef  deteriorates  rapidly  after  a  few  days  in  the  chill-room. 
Frozen  cuts  sometimes  develop  a  flabby  or  sloppy  condition  after 
thawing,  due  to  the  separation  of  the  water  from  the  tissues  of 
the  meat.  This  renders  the  cut  tough  and  greatly  detracts  from  its 
flavor.  The  importance  of  marbling  consists  mainly  in  its  in- 
fluence on  tenderness.  When  fat  is  deposited  in  the  connective 
tissue  cells  thruout  the  lean,  the  elasticity  of  the  connective  tissue 
is  diminished,  and  the  meat  is  improved  in  tenderness,  juiciness, 
and  flavor.  Marbling  is  of  special  importance  in  ribs  and  loins 
of  the  higher  grades,  and  is  not  usually  evident  in  other  cuts  except 
the  best  No.  i  rounds  and  chucks.  The  proportion  of  bone  di- 
rectly affects  the  amount  of  edible  meat  in  a  cut  and  is  therefore 
important.  The  bone  is  also  a  valuable  indication  of  the  age  and 
class  of  the  carcass  from  which  the  cut  was  taken.  Coarse,  hard 
bone  is  found  in  the  same  cut  with  coarse,  stringy  meat. 

Color  is  of  great  importance  in  grading  beef  cuts,  as  it  is  an 
indication  of  the  age  and  quality  of  the  beef.  The  fresh  cut  sur- 
face of  the  lean  should  be  a  rich,  bright  red,  and  should  turn 
brighter  rather  than  darker  after  exposure  to  the  air  at  refrigerator 
temperatures.  A  very  dark  color  is  an  indication  of  either  an 
old  animal  or  a  feverish  or  heated  condition  of  the  animal  when 
slaughtered,  and  is  also  characteristic  of  cuts  taken  from  bulls  and 
stags.  Exposure  in  a  warm  atmosphere,  however,  will  produce 
a  dark  color  on  the  surface  of  beef  of  any  grade.  A  very  pale  or 
pinkish  tinge,  on  the  other  hand,  usually  indicates  immaturity. 
Cuts  showing  dark  spots  in  the  lean  are  placed  in  the  No.  ?  and 
Stripper  grades.  The  fat  should  be  a  clear  white.  In  the  lower 
grades  it  varies  from  white  to  yellow. 

Weight  affects  the  grade  of  a  beef  cut  in  the  same  manner  and 
to  about  the  same  extent  as  in  the  grading  of  carcass  beef.  Altho 
the  higher  grades  are  made  up  largely  of  heavy  cuts,  a  light  cut 
may  grade  No.  i,  if  it  complies  with  all  other  requirements  of 


MARKET  CLASSES  AND  GRADES  OF  MEAT 


193 


that  grade,  and  a  heavy  cut  is  graded  No.  2  or  No.  3  in  case  of 
deficiency  in  thickness,  quality  or  color.  The  heavier  weights  of 
each  grade  are  cut  from  steer  sides,  and  from  stags  and  bulls  to  a 
small  extent  in  the  No.  2's  and  No.  3's,  while  the  light  cuts  are 
largely  from  cows.  For  example,  No.  i  cuts  are  principally  from 
choice  and  prime  800  to  looo-pound  native  steer  carcasses  and 
choice  750  to  QOO-pound  native  cows ;  No.  2's  are  largely  from 
medium  and  good  650  to  Soo-pound  steers  and  600  to  75O-pound 
cows;  and  No.  3's  are  made  chiefly  from  450  to  6oo-pound  com- 
mon and  medium  cows,  also  from  Texas  and  light  Western  steers. 
Stripper  cuts  are  made  from  canners,  medium  and  common  bulls, 
Texas  and  common  light  Western  cattle. 

AVERAGE  WEIGHTS  OF  STRAIGHT  BEEF  CUTS  (POUNDS) 


Grade 

Loins 

Ribs. 

Rounds 

Chucks 

Plates 

Flanks 

Shanks 

No   1 

50-85 

30-50 

75-110 

75-110 

40  80 

15-20 

10-20 

No   2 

40  60 

25-35 

60  80 

60  80 

30  50 

10-15 

5-10 

No.  3 

25-40 

20-25 

40-60 

40  60 

20-35 

5-10 

Strippers 

20  30 

15-20 

30-40 

30-40 

15-20 

Relative  weights  of  the  above  cuts  vary  slightly  in  different 
markets  according  to  the  method  of  cutting  and  are  varied  more 
or  less  with  changing  market  prices  of  the  different  cuts.  The  fol- 
lowing table  represents  (i)  the  range  of  these  variations  and  (2) 
the  percentages  that  are  commonly  used  in  estimating  the  cutting 
vield  of  side-beef : 

PERCENTAGES  OF  WHOLESALE  BEEF  CUTS  TO  CARCASS  WEIGHT 


Cuts 

Thorns 

Ribs 

Rounds 

Chucks 

Plates 

Flanks 

Shanks 

Suet 

Extreme 
rang-e 

15-19 

8-11 

20-26 

21  27 

12-16 

2-5 

3-7 

2-7 

Conven- 
tional 
average 

17 

9 

23 

26 

13 

4 

4 

4 

In  general,  a  high  finish  indicates  a  relatively  large  percent  of 
kidney-suet;  carcasses  of  the  higher  grades  contain  a  smaller  per 


194  BULLETIN  No.   147  [July, 

cent  of  kidney  suet  than  lower  grades  if  equally  fat;  and  cows  and 
heifers  yield  a  larger  percent  of  kidney  suet  than  steers  of  the  same 
grade.  Otherwise  the  various  classes  and  grades  of  carcass  beef 
are  similar  in  relative  proportions  of  different  cuts ;  and  the  above 
variations  are  caused  mainly  by  the  method  of  cutting  and  by 
individual  characteristics  of  different  carcasses. 

The  relative  market  value  of  these  cuts  correspond  to  the  order 
of  their  arrangement  in  the  above  tables,  excepting  suet,  which  is 
more  variable.  For  the  purpose  of  mental  calculations  as  to  the 
cutting  value  per  pound  of  side-beef,  a  carcass  is  regarded  as  con- 
sisting of  four  parts  which  are  approximately  equal  in  weight, 
viz.,  (i)  loins  and  ribs,  (2)  rounds,  (3)  chucks,  and  (4)  plates, 
flanks,  shanks  and  suet.  By  averaging  the  market  prices  of  the 
four  divisions  the  value  per  pound  of  a  carcass  can  be  very  closely 
estimated.  Similarly,  "hinds"  are  regarded  as  consisting  of  50 
percent  round,  35  percent  loin  and  15  percent  flank  and  suet; 
"fores",  50  percent  chuck,  20  percent  rib  and  30  percent  plate  and 
shank. 

It  is  customary  in  quotations  of  beef  cuts  to  differentiate  be- 
tween steer  and  cow  cuts;  e.g.,  No.  2  steer  loins  and  No.  2  cow 
loins.  This  distinction  is  readily  recognized  in  the  cuts  by  their 
shape,  bones,  thickness,  quality  and  color  as  explained  in  refer- 
ence to  carcass  beef.  Heifer  cuts  are  seldom  quoted,  owing  to 
the  demand  for  heifer  beef  in  the  side.  "Native"  and  "Wes- 
tern" cuts  are  sometimes  specified  in  quotations  of  No.  i  and 
No.  2  cuts  and  are  distinguished  by  the  characteristics  described 
on  page  185.  In  the  No.  3  and  stripper  grades  of  cuts  little  or  no 
distinction  is  made  between  Native,  Western  and  Texas  beef. 

LOINS 

The  loin  is  the  highest-priced  cut  of  the  carcass  because  of  the 
tenderness  and  quality  of  the  lean.  The  grade  of  a  loin  may  be 
determined  by  marked  excellence  or  deficiency  in  either  thickness, 
covering  or  quality,  or  by  a  uniform  degree  of  development  in  all 
respects.  No.  I's  must  have  a  full,  well-rounded  shape,  a  com- 
plete covering  of  white  fat  the  thickness  of  which  is  in  proper 
proportion  to  the  lean,  and  bright,  firm,  fine-grained,  well-mar- 
bled flesh.  No.  2's  are  generally  less  rounded  in  form,  with  in- 
sufficient, excessive,  or  uneven  covering  and  a  slight  deficiency 
in  grain,  marbling  or  color  of  flesh ;  while  No.  3's  are  more  flat 
in  shape,  nearly  or  entirely  lacking  in  covering  of  fat  and  very 
deficient  in  thickness  and  qualitv  of  flesh,  but  sufficiently  developed 
to  be  cut  into  porterhouse  and  sirloin  steaks  for  cheap  trade  (Fig. 
23).  Stripper  loins  have  no  outside  fat  and  are  usually  extremely 
flat  and  rouo-h  in  shape,  with  dark-colored,  coarse-grained  flesh 
and  hard,  white  bone. 


MARKET  CLASSES  AND  GRADES  OF  MEAT 


195 


195 


BULLETIN  No.   147 


Several  different  cuts  of  the  loin  are  used  extensively  as 
wholesale  cuts,  particularly  in  the  No.  2  and  3  grades.  The  regu- 
lar or  pinbone  short  loin  is  the  portion  between  the  thirteenth  rib 
and  hip-bone  (pinbone)  inclusive  and  includes  from  45  to  55  per- 
cent of  the  full  loin.  It  contains  porterhouse  or  T-bone,  and  club 
steaks,  and  is  valued  at  40  to  60  percent  more  per  pound  than  the 
full  loin.  This  cut  is  made  in  3  grades,  the  weights  of  which  run 
from  20  to  40  pounds.  The  remainder  of  the  full  loin  is  called  the 
loin  end  and  is  valued  at  about  one-third  less  per  pound  than  the 
full  loin.  It  is  used  for  sirloin  steaks. 

If  the  short  loin  is  cut  off  midway  between  the  pinbone  and 
butt  end  of  the  loin  it  is  known  as  a  flatbone  short  loin.  It  sells 
lower  than  the  pinbone  loin,  and  is  considerably  used  in  Chicago 
markets.  It  is  also  graded  No.  i,  2  and  3,  and  is  made  in  aver- 
ages from  20  to  45  pounds. 

The  tenderloin  ("beef  tender"  or  "fillet  of  beef")  is  a  long 
muscle  lying  between  the  kidney-fat  and  the  back-bone  and  extend- 
ing from  the  thirteenth  rib  to  the  butt  end  of  the  loin.  As  the 
name  implies,  it  is  a  very  tender  piece ;  and  the  great  demand  for 
it,  notwithstanding  its  lack  of  juiciness  and  flavor  compared  with 
other  parts  of  the  loin  and  rib,  is  a  striking  example  of  the  im- 
portance of  tenderness  in  the  estimation  of  beef  customers.  The 
tenderloins  required  to  supply  the  demand  are  taken  principally 
from  No.  3  and  stripper  loins.  They  weigh  2  to  8  pounds.  No. 
I's  must  weigh  above  6  pounds  and  have  a  bright  color.  No.  2*s 
weigh  4  to  6  pounds;  No.  3's,  3  to  4;  and  "strip  tenders"  or 
"shoestrings"  less  than  3  pounds.  No.  i  tenderloins  command 
about  twice  the  wholesale  price  paid  for  the  lowest  grades.  See 
Fig.  30. 

Loins  from  which  the  tenderloin  has  been  removed  are  called 
strip  loins  or  strips  (Fig.  24).  They  average  7  to  15  pound? 
and  are  graded  mainly  according  to  weight.  Strips  are  usually 
cut  into  the  sirloin  strip,  or  stripped  short  loin,  and  the  sirloin  butt, 


FIG.  24.     FROZEN  STRIP  LOINS,  No.  3  GRADE. 

Front  View.  Rear  View. 


ip/o]  MARKET  CLASSES  AND  GRADES  OF  MEAT  197 

which  is  virtually  a  stripped  loin  end.  The  lowest  grades  of  strips 
and  butts  are  often  boned  out,  in  which  case  they  are  known  as 
boneless  strips  and  boneless  butts,  respectively.  They  are  almost 
entirely  used  for  cheap  restaurant  and  hotel  trade  to  be  cut  into 
small  steaks.  Large  quantities  are  frozen  during  the  cutting  sea- 
son. Strips  and  butts  are  sometimes  made  from  No.  3  as  well  as 
"stripper"  loins,  and  include  many  from  bulls  and  stags.  Bone- 
less strips  average  4  to  8  pounds,  and  are  occasionally  made  in 
averages  as  high  as  10  to  12  pounds.  Butts  weigh  3  to  6  or  8 
pounds. 

RIBS 

This  cut,  which  includes  the  portion  between  the  loin  and 
chuck,  is  also  known  as  the  prime  or  standing  rib.  As  the  loin 
contains  the  choicest  steaks,  the  rib  contains  the  best  roasts.  Ribs 
and  loins  are  commonly  sold  in  sets  at  a  lump  price.  Quoted  sep- 
arately, ribs  are  valued  at  10  to  20  percent  less  per  pound  than 
loins  of  the  same  grade,  due  to  difference  in  quality  of  the  lean 
and  larger  proportion  of  bone  in  the  rib  cut. 

The  various  grades  of  ribs  differ  in  thickness,  covering  and 
quality  to  the  same  relative  extent  as  the  corresponding  grades  of 
loins.  The  depth  and  quality  of  flesh  are  apparent  in  the  "eye" 
or  "heart"  of  beef  at  the  twelfth  rib  and  in  the  cut  end  next  to  the 
chuck.  ^S^ecovering  of  fat  on  No.  i  ribs  should  be  about  one-half 
inch  in  depur^The  bones  in  this  cut  serve  as  a  very  valuable  index 
of  the  quality  of  beef,  the  chine-bones  and  ribs  varying  accord- 
ing to  age  as  explained  under  carcass  beef,  and  the  "fea'ther  edge" 
of  the  shoulder  blade  indicating  the  age  of  the  carcass  in  like 
manner.  The  latter  is  cartilaginous  in  young  animals  and  is  white 
and  soft  up  to  two  years,  after  which  time  it  gradually  ossifies,  and 
at  3  years  one-half  to  two-thirds  its  length  is  bone.  See  Fig.  25. 

No.  3  and  "stripper"  ribs  are  also  made  into  "rolls".  A  "reg- 
ular roll"  consists  of  the  lean  part  of  the  rib,  stripped  of  the  back- 
bone, shoulder  blade,  fat  and  outer  layer  of  meat.  They  weigh  4 
to  8  pounds,  and  are  used  for  small  steaks.  "Spencer  rolls"  are 
of  better  quality  and  heavier  averages  than  regulars,  and  the  fat 
and  outer  layer  of  lean  are  left  on  except  that  portion  above  the 
shoulder  blade.  Spencers  average  from  6  to  12  pounds,  and  are 
used  for  roasts  and  steaks.  Both  styles  of  roll  are  used  chiefly 
for  restaurant  and  small  hotel  trade  and  are  sold  frozen  to  a  con- 
siderable extent. 

"Pieces"  consist  of  the  rib  and  navel  in  one  cut.  Fore  quar- 
ters from  which  only  the  ribs  have  been  cut  are  called  "triangles", 
"rattles",  "slugs",  "L's"  or  "knockouts"  (Fig  22).  They  are 
graded  No.  i,  No.  2  and  No.  3  in  the  same  manner  as  straight 
cuts. 


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ROUNDS 

The  cut  surface  of  the  full  round  being  identical  with  the  butt 
end  of  the  corresponding"  loin,  the  conditions  as  to  grain,  marbling, 
covering  and  color  at  that  point  determine  the  grade  in  each  case 
alike.  Rough  or  lumpy  cod  fat  indicates  a  steer  round,  a  soft, 
flabby  bag  a  cow  round,  and  a  firm  or  hard  bag  a  heifer.  Also,  in 
steer  rounds  one  end  of  the  aitch-bone  is  surrounded  by  the  lean 
flesh  of  the  "inside",  while  in  cows  and  heifers  it  is  surrounded  by 
fat ;  and  the  exposed  portion  of  the  "inside"  is  comparatively  nar- 
row or  flat  in  cows  but  rounded  or  triangular  in  steers.  The  shape 
of  rounds  varies  exceedingly,  as  can  be  seen  most  readily  by  com- 
paring the  carcasses  shown  in  Figs,  i  to  20.  See  also  Fig.  26. 
Since  the  proportion  of  steaks  which  can  be  cut  depends  upon  the 
shape  of  the  round,  the  importance  of  this  factor  is  evident.  No. 
i  rounds  are  generally  valued  at  40  to  60  percent  less  than  the 
price  of  loins  and  ribs  of  the  same  grade;  while  No.  3's  are  gen- 
erally quoted  only  10  to  30  percent  below  No.  3  loins  and  ribs. 
Rounds  sell  relatively  higher  in  summer  than  in  winter  because 
they  are  used  principally  for  cutting  small  steaks. 

Three  wholesale  cuts  for  fresh  trade  are  made  from  rounds, 
viz.,  the  buttock  (quoted  as  "round,  R.  &  S.  off"),  rump,  and 
shank.  On  the  average  about  60  percent  of  the  full  round  weight  is 
buttock,  20  percent  rump  and  20  percent  shank.  The  buttock  is 
wholly  suited  to  cut  as  round  steaks,  those  nearest  the  rump  being 
of  best  quality  because  containing  larger  muscles  and  less  waste. 
This  cut  is  quoted  at  about  25  percent  above  the  price  of  straight 
rounds,  the  difference  being  less  marked  in  the  higher  grades. 
The  rump,  when  used  fresh,  is  usually  sold  as  a  rump  butt,  or  bone- 
less rump  (Fig.  27).  This  is  made  by  cutting  out  the  aitch-bone 
(hip-bone)  and  trimming  off  square  at  loin  end,  leaving  a  bone- 
less cut  (except  the  "tail-bone")  weighing  5  to  7  pounds  and  worth 
about  the  same  price  but  generally  less  than  the  full  round.  It 
is  used  mainly  for  corned  beef.  The  hind  shank  consists  of  about 
equal  parts  of  bone  and  boiling  meat.  The  latter,  as  a  retail  cut, 
is  known  as  the  "heel  of  the  round"  or  "horseshoe  piece".  Shank 
meat  is  principally  used,  however,  for  Hamburger,  sausage  trim- 
mings, or  similar  purposes. 

The  American  preference  for  loin  and  rib  cuts  renders  it  nec- 
essary to  dispose  of  a  large  share  of  the  lower  grade  rounds  other- 
wise than  over  the  block  as  fresh  cuts.  For  this  purpose  they  are 
stripped  and  made  into  "beef  hams",  rump  butts  and  shank  saus- 
age meat.  The  buttocks  of  cow,  bull  and  stag  carcasses  are  best 
adapted  for  making  beef  hams.  At  least  a  partial  covering  of  fat 
on  the  round  is  required  for  the  bulk  of  this  beef,  but  the  cheapest 


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grades  are  packed  from  rounds  which  are  almost  entirely  free 
from  fat.  It  is  impossible  to  cure  beef  satisfactorily  that  has  not 
reached  maturity  or  nearly  so,  since  it  shrinks  heavily  on  account 
of  being  more  watery  and  does  not  "take  the  salt''  as  well  as  beef 
that  is  matured.  Buttocks  intended  for  curing  are  cut  longei 
than  regular,  leaving  a  smaller  rump  piece.  In  stripping  a  buttock 
for  beef  hams,  it  is  divided  into  three  boneless  pieces  according  to 
the  muscular  divisions  of  the  round,  making  an  "inside",  "outside" 
and  "knuckle".  These  cuts  are  known  as  a  beef  set  (Fig.  30). 
The  average  proportions  by  weight  of  the  three  "beef  hams"  are 
42  percent,  31  percent,  and  27  percent,  respectively;  but  the  out- 
side and  knuckle  are  sometimes  divided  equally.  They  are  fre- 
quently stored  in  freezers,  either  fresh  or  in  brine,  until  it  is  de- 
sired to  cure  them.  The  rounds  of  canner  sides  and  others  of  very 
light  weight  and  poor  quality  are  used  to  some  extent  for  canning 
or  sausage  purposes.  A  "Scotch  buttock"  is  a  boneless  buttock, 
principally  from  heavy  No.  I  rounds,  a  few  being  made  from  Xo. 
2's.'  Rumps  are  not  cured  to  the  same  extent  as  buttocks.  When 
barreled  they  are  sold  principally  as  rump  butts  and  mess  beef. 
For  description  of  cured  beef  products  made  from  the  round,  see 
page  210. 


FIG.  27.     RUMP  BUTTS. 


202  BULLETIN   No.    147  [July, 

CHUCKS 

Thickness,  shape  and  color  are  the  most  important  points  con- 
sidered in  grading  chucks ;  and  the  covering  of  fat  is  of  much  less 
consequence  than  in  loins  and  ribs.  The  general  quality  of  chucks 
is  indicated  by  the  chine  and  brisket  bones,  color  and  grain  of 
flesh.  No.  i  chucks  have  a  complete  covering  of  fat,  which  is 
thickest  along  the  rib  end  of  the  cut.  No.  2!s  have  little  and  No. 
3's  no  covering  (Fig  28).  Nearly  equal  parts  of  the  chuck  are 
retailed  as  shoulder  steaks  and  boiling  pieces,  and  a  roast  may  be 
cut  from  the  last  two  or  three  ribs  of  No.  i  chucks.  Pot  roasts 
are  cut  from  the  lower  or  shank  side,  and  stews  or  soup  meat 
from  the  neck.  The  proportions  of  the  chuck  which  are  suitable 
for  roasts,  steaks  and  boiling  meat  vary  greatly  according  to 
thickness  and  shape ;  and  in  view  of  the  wide  difference  in  market 
value  of  those  cuts,  the  importance  of  compact  shape  and  full  thick 
development  of  lean  meat  are  apparent.  The  chine  bones  and 
shoulder  blade  give  a  clue  to  the  age  and  maturity  of  the  carcass, 
as  explained  in  connection  with  the  rib  cut. 

The  style  of  cutting  shown  in  Fig.  22  is  known  as  the  square 
chuck,  and  is  the  style  most  used  in  Chicago  wholesale  markets. 
Chucks  are  sometimes  cut  "knuckle  out"  by  removing  the  shank 
with  a  knife  at  the  second  knuckle*  instead  of  sawing  off  below 
the  joint.  The  lower  grades  of  chucks  are  often  further  divided 
in  order  to  make  the  cut  more  salable.  Such  cuts  are  the  shoulder 
clod  and  boneless  chuck.  The  shoulder  clod  (Fig.  30)  is  a 
wedge-shaped  piece  cut  from  the  fleshy  part  of  the  chuck  just 
back  of  the  shoulder  blade,  and  extending  from  the  elbow  of  the 
shank  nearly  or  quite  to  the  back-bone.  It  is  taken  mainly  from 
No.  3  and  "stripper"  cuts,  and  to  a  small  extent  from  No.  I's  and 
2's.  It  is  a  boneless  cut  weighing  six  to  fifteen  pounds,  and  sells 
from  10  to  20  percent  above  chuck  quotations.  It  is  used  for 
steaks  and  roasts,  especially  in  restaurants  and  small  hotels ;  and 
is  in  some  cases  smoked  and  sold  as  a  "dried  beef  clod".  Bone- 
less chucks  are  cut  "knuckle  out"  and  have  the  shoulder  blade  and 
ribs  removed.  They  are  made  only  from  "stripper",  No.  3  and 
light  No.  2  chucks;  they  weigh  slightly  less  and  sell  about  10 
percent  higher  than  full  chucks  of  the  same  grade.  They  are 
principally  used  for  sausage.  Necks  and  neck  trimmings  are 
also  quoted  as  sausage-meat,  and  are  used  fresh  to  some  extent  for 
soup,  hash  and  mince-meat. 

Scotch  clods  are  also  made  from  boneless  chucks.  This  is 
an  entirely  lean  cut,  consisting  of  the  inner  portion  underneath  the 
blade  bone,  and  is  the  best  part  of  the  chuck.  It  is  principally 
frozen  and  exported  to  Great  Britain. 


*The  upper  or  shoulder  joint. 


MARKET  CLASSES  AND  GRADES  OF  MEAT 


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"Kosher"  or  "New  York"  chucks  consist  of  the  square  chuck, 
shank,  brisket  and  neck,  in  one  piece,  (in  other  words,  the  fore 
quarter  with  rib  and  navel  taken  off)  cut  from  Kosher  cattle  (p. 
188).  They  include  about  one-third  of  the  carcass  weight.  Beef 
sold  to  Jewish  trade  is  mainly  confined  to  this  cut,  altho  ribs 
and  navels  may  be  so  used.  Kosher  chucks  are  cut  from  all  grades 
of  cattle  that  yield  other  regular  cuts  for  fresh  trade,  but  the 
greatest  proportion  are  from  choice  and  good  sides.  They  com- 
mand a  price,  slightly  above  the  average  price  of  the  parts  which 
compose  them  and  thus  sell  at  very  nearly  the  price  of  full  rounds 
of  the  same  grade.  About  10  percent  of  the  carcass  beef  sold 
locally  in  Chicago  is  cut  in  this  fashion  and  none  is  shipped  owing 
to  restrictions  of  Kosher  regulations.  See  Fig.  29. 

The  portion  of  the  carcass  left  by  the  removal  of  the  Kosher 
chuck  is  called  the  "hind  and  piece",  and  consists  of  the  regular 
hind  quarter,  rib  and  navel  piece  together.  A  beef  back  or  "back 
half"  consists  of  a  square  chuck  and  rib  in  one  piece.  This  cut 
is  not  extensively  used.  See  Fig.  22. 


FIG.  29.     KOSHER  CHUCKS,  No.  1  GRADE. 
REAR  VIEW.  SIDE  VIEW. 


MARKET  CLASSES  AND  GRADES  OF  MEAT 


205 


FIG.  30. 

A,  Beef  Hams,  (Left,  "Inside";    Center,  "Outside";    Right,  "Knuckle".) 
B,  Tenderloin.  C,  Shoulder  Clod. 

PlvATES 

The  most  essential  points  in  grading  plates  are  thickness  of  the 
cut,  proper  proportions  of  lean  and  fat,  and  quality  of  bone. 
Color,  grain  and  firmness  of  flesh  are  less  important  factors  than  in 
case  of  the  more  valuable  cuts.  No.  i  plates  are  entirely  covered 
with  a  thick  layer  of  fat,  which  is  most  abundant  over  the  brisket, 
and  have  a  corresponding  depth  of  flesh.  No.  3's,  most  of  which  are 
cow  plates,  are  nearly  bare  of  fat  except  on  the  brisket  end,  ?.nd 
differ  from  strippers  principally  in  thickness  of  flesh.  (Fig.  31.) 
The  grade  of  a  plate  is  determined  more  largely  by  its  weight 
than  is  that  of  a  loin  or  rib.  Briskets  and  navel-ends  are  whole- 
sale cuts  made  from  plates  by  cutting  them  in  two  between  the 
sixth  and  seventh  ribs,  the  navel-end  containing  about  three-fifths 
the  weight  of  the  plate.  Heavy  plates  are  principally  barreled  and 
sold  as  mess  beef  of  various  grades  (p.  208)  owing  to  the  com- 
paratively small  retail  demand  for  boiling,  stewing,  and  corned 
beef.  Scarcely  one  retail  market  in  ten  has  a  demand  for  fresh 
plate  beef  but  some  are  sold  fresh  to  restaurants  and  hotels.  Corned 
briskets  and  navels  are  sold  in  most  retail  markets,  the  latter  usu- 
ally being  boned  and  sold  as  "beef  rolls".  Navels  were  formerly 
valued  higher  than  briskets,  but  the  latter  have  become  more 
generally  used  during  recent  vears  and  now  command  a  price 
one-third  higher  than  navels.  Strippers  and  No.  3  plates  are  boned 
out  for  sausage,  canning  purposes,  and  soup  meat,  and  few  full 
plates  lighter  than  30  pounds  are  barreled. 

FLANKS 

As  the  flank  is  a  boneless  cut,  its  quality  and  grade  depend 
entirely  upon  the  thickness  and  quality  of  the  lean  and  fat.  The 


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color  and  grain  of  flesh  are  less  variable  in  flanks  than  in  the 
more  valuable  cuts,  consequently  the  grades  correspond  more 
closely  to  the  weights  given  on  page  193.  No.  I  flanks  are  thick- 
fleshed  and  covered  with  solid,  white  fat;  No.  3's  are  thin,  soft 
and  in  many  cases  very  dark-colored  and  flabby.  The  shape  and 
thickness  of  the  different  grades  are  shown  in  Fig  32.  No.  I  and 
No.  2.  flanks  are  to  some  extent  retailed  in  the  form  of  flank  rolls, 
either  fresh  or  corned,  but  they  are  principally  barreled  as  mess 
beef  (p.  209),  and  the  lighter  grades  made  into  sausage  and  canned 
corned  beef. 

While  straight  flanks  are  handled  but  little  by  retail  trade, 
they  contain  a  cut  known  as  the  flank  steak,  which  is  used  fresh 
extensively.  It  forms  only  about  10  percent  of  the  flank  weight 
but  is  worth  about  twice  as  much  per  pound  as  the  straight  flank. 
It  is  "pulled"  from  medium  and  heavy  flanks  and  is  graded  mainly 
on  a  weight  basis,  No.  I's  weighting  1^4  to  2.y2  pounds,  No.  2's 
i  to  i^4,  and  No.  3's  less  than  i  pound.  Flanks  are  quoted  both 
"steak  in"  and  "steak  out". 

SHANKS 

Except  when  otherwise  specified  this  term  refers  in  the  market 
to  fore  shanks,  or  "shins".  Hind  shanks  are  described  in  this 
bulletin  in  connection  with  rounds.  Shanks  cut  from  square 
chucks  are  regular  or  "clod  off"  shanks.  Those  taken  from 
"knuckle  out"  chucks  include  a  part  of  the  shoulder  clod  and  are 
quoted  "clod  on".  The  shank  carries  little  or  no  covering  of  fat, 
and  the  most  important  points  are  thickness  of  lean  with  light 
bone.  A  large  percentage  of  the  supply  of  shanks  are  not  graded 
but  are  stripped  (boned)  in  the  packing  house,  the  meat  being 
known  as  "shank  meat",  and  used  for  sausaee. 

Those  that  are  sold  fresh  are  taken  by  retailers,  restaurants  and 
hotels  for  soup-meat  and  stews,  especially  in  winter,  and  are  gen- 
erally graded  simply  as  light  and  heavy,  or  below  and  above  10 
pounds.  They  sell  about  one-third  higher  than  hind  shanks. 
See  Fig.  33. 


FIG.  33.     SHANKS. 

No.  3  Grade.  No.  2  Grade.  No.  1  Grade.  Clod  On. 


208  BULLETIN   No.    147  [July, 

SUET 

Little  kidney  suet  is  sold  in  the  wholesale  beef  trade  beside 
that  which  goes  with  carcass  beef.  (Fig.  22.)  Sides  and  hind 
quarters  are  sold  with  suet  in,  and  retail  meat  dealers  sell  more 
or  less  of  this  fat  back  to  packers  or  other  buyers  of  "shop  fats". 
It  is  quoted  together  with  beef  cuts,  however,  and  is  sold  in  but 
one  grade,  which  must  be  clear  white  and  brittle,  and  weigh  5 
to  10  pounds  trimmed.  Kidney  suet  sold  at  retail  is  used  for 
cooking  purposes  as  a  lard  substitute,  and  for  mince-meat  especi- 
ally ,  during  the  winter  season.  The  bulk  of  the  suet  supply  is 
used  for  the  manufacture  of  butterine,  cooking  compound,  soaps, 
oleo-oil  and  stearin. 

TRIMMINGS 

In  making  beef  cuts,  especially  boneless  cuts  and  those  used  for 
barreled  and  canned  beef,  scraps  of  various  size  and  shape  accu- 
mulate. Their  value  depends  upon  the  size  and  quality  of  the 
pieces  and  the  proportion  of  lean  meat  they  contain.  Two  grades 
of  trimmings  are  recognized.  The  No.  i  grade  consists  of  large 
pieces  that  are  comparatively  free  from  fat,  such  as  neck,  brisket, 
and  chuck  trimmings  and  hanging  tenderloins.  No.  2  trimmings 
include  rib,  loin,  tenderloin,  flank  and  navel  trimmings,  being  small 
scraps  with  a  larger  proportion  of  fat  than  No.  I's.  Both  grades 
are  used  principally  for  sausage  and  canned  meats.  They  are 
packed  in  loo-pound  boxes  or  in  slack  barrels  and  sold  both  fresh 
and  frozen ;  they  are  also  partially  cured  in  tierces  with  salt,  salt- 
petre and  sugar  and  sold  as  "curene"  trimmings.  The  supply 
of  trimmings  is  largest  during  the  fall  cattle-cutting  season. 

CURED  BEEF  PRODUCTS 

As  previously  stated,  about  one-fourth  of  the  wholesale  beef 
supply  is  marketed  in  a  cured  form.  The  plates,  flanks  ?nd  rumps 
of  all  grades  of  cattle  are  at  times  used  in  this  way  and  in  the 
lower  grades  of  beef  the  round  and  chuck  are  quite  commonly 
cut  up  and  cured  before  marketing.  The  less  salable  cuts  and 
grades  of  beef  are  held  in  storage  for  longer  periods  and  are 
shipped  greater  distances  than  the  higher  grades,  and  various 
cured  products  are  the  most  economical  and  convenient  forms  in 
which  to  store  and  ship  such  meats.  Beef  is  packed  as  Barreled, 
Smoked  and  Canned  Beef,  and  is  also  a  constituent  of  various 
kinds  of  sausage. 

BARRELED  BEEE 

Barreled  or  corned  beef  is  packed  in  brine  and  is  quoted  both 
in  2OO-pound  (net)  barrels,  3<X)-pound  tierces  and  in  half-  and 


MARKET  CLASSES  AND  GRADES  OF  MEAT  209 

quarter-barrels.  It  may  be  cured  in  the  barrel  or  cured  in  vats 
before  packing.  The  standard  barreled  beef  products  are  des- 
cribed below.  For  description  of  the  cuts  from  which  the  various 
grades  are  made  see  pages  200  to  207. 

Extra  India  Mess  Beef  is  made  from  heavy  fat  No.  I  plates 
weighing  65  to  80  pounds,  cut  into  pieces  of  about  8  pounds 
average  and  packed  in  tierces  or  barrels.  It  is  the  highest  grade 
of  barreled  beef  and  is  sold  largely  thru  British  markets  for  army 
and  navy  use.  Fulton  Market  Beef  is  of  the  same  quality  as  Extra 
India  but  from  60  to  70  pound  plates,  and  is  usually  put  up  in 
half  barrels  or  tubs  for  domestic  trade.  These  and  the  two  fol- 
lowing grades  of  plate  beef  are  usually  packed  with  the  lower 
side  of  the  brisket  piece  removed. 

Extra  Plate  (Extra  Family}  Beef  is  cut  from  moderately  fat 
No.  i  plates,  (50  to  60  pounds),  and  packed  like  Extra  India. 
It  is  exported  principally  to  various  countries  in  northern  Europe. 

Regular  Plate  or  Pamily  Beef  consists  of  No.  2  plates  (40  to 
50  pounds),  with  good  proportions  of  fat  and  lean,  cut  into  pieces 
of  6  to  8  pounds  and  packed  the  same  as  Extra  India.  It  is  also 
sold  largely  in  northern  European  countries. 

Packet  Beef  is  made  from  30  to  40  pound  plates  (heavy  No. 
3's  and  light  No.  2's)  cut  the  same  as  other  grades  of  plate  beef. 
It  is  used  thruout  Europe,  the  West  Indies,  Central  and  South 
America. 

Common  Plate  Beef  is  made  from  No.  3  plates,  20  to  30 
pounds  average,  cut  and  packed  as  explained  above.  It  is  the 
lowest  grade  of  barreled  plate  beef.  This  grade,  also  Prime  Mess 
and  Extra  Mess  Beef,  is  sold  to  the  same  trade  as  Packet  Beef. 

Rolled  Boneless  Beef  (Rolled  Beef  or  Rollettes)  consists  of 
plates  with  a  portion  of  the  brisket  cut  off,  the  remainder  of 
plate  being  boned,  rolled  and  wound  with  twine.  It  is  made  from 
No.  2  and  No.  3  plates  of  25  to  40  pounds  average.  The  rolls 
weigh  8  to  12  pounds  and  are  cured  in  mild  brine. 

Prime  Mess  Beef  consists  of  about  100  pounds  of  plates  and 
loo  pounds  of  chucks,  rumps,  and  flanks  per  barrel  cut  into  pieces 
of  6  to  9  pounds.  The  proportions  of  the  cuts  named  are  varied 
according  to  demands  and  may  contain  100  pounds  of  chucks  with 
the  remainder  plates,  flanks  and  rumps,  or  as  otherwise  specified. 
This  grade  is  made  from  heavy  No.  3  and  light  No.  2  cuts. 

Extra  Mess  Beef  contains  the  same  assortment  of  cuts  as 
Prime  Mess  but  is  made  only  from  No.  3  cuts. 

Rump  Butt  Beef  is  cut  from  rumps  off  the  medium  and  lower 
grades  of  rounds,  and  is  boneless  except  a  small  piece  of  tail-bone. 
The  pieces  average  4  to  6  pounds  each.  It  is  sold  largely  in  lum- 
bering districts  and  to  the  fisheries  trade. 


210  BULLETIN   No.   147  [July, 

Mess  Chuck  Beef  is  made  from  chucks  of  the  medium  and 
lower  grades  cut  into  square  pieces  of  approximately  8  pounds. 
It  is  used  by  the  same  class  of  trade  as  Rump  Butt  Beef. 

Beef  Hams  (see  p.  199)  are  barreled  in  sweet  pickle,  both 
in  sets  and  separately  as  insides,  outsides  and  knuckles.  They 
are,  however,  sold  in  the  barreled  form  only  to  a  small  extent,  be- 
ing principally  smoked.  They  are  graded  according  to  quality 
and  weight. 

Scotch  Buttocks  (see  p.  201)  are  barreled  in  a  mild  plain 
pickle  and  shipped  to  Glasgow  especially  during  the  summer  sea- 
son. They  are  usually  made  in  only  one  grade  from  No.  i 
rounds. 

SMOKED  BEEF 

Smoked  or  dried  beef  is  almost  entirely  limited  to  beef  hams, 
which,  after  curing  in  sweet  pickle,  are  dried  and  smoked.  The 
method  of  cutting  is  described  on  page  199.  Like  barreled  beet 
hams,  the  insides,  outsides,  and  knuckles  are  sold  either  sep- 
arately or  in  sets,  the  insides  being  valued  highest,  knuckles  slightly 
lower,  tho  sometimes  the  same  as  insides,  and  outsides  lowest. 
The  pieces  weigh  5  to  12  pounds,  knuckles  being  lightest  and  in- 
sides heaviest.  The  heavier  graces  of  each  cut  are  most  in  de- 
mand. Brief  beef  hams  are  sold  as  chipped  beef  by  retail  butchers 
and  grocers ;  much  dried  beef  is  also  put  up  in  sliced  form,  sealed 
in  glass  jars  or  tins  of  from  I  to  5  pounds.  The  consumption  of 
dried  beef  is  greatest  during  the  summer  months. 

Shoulder  clods  (p.  202)  are  sometimes  smoked  and  known 
as  "dried  beef  clods".  Briskets  of  choice  cattle  are  also  smoked 
in  some  cases  and  sold  as  "Smoked  Brisket  Beef",  principally  to 
Kosher  (Jewish)  trade. 

CANNED  BEEE 

This  term  applies  to  beef  sealed  in  tins  or  glass  jars.  With  the 
exception  of  a  few  products  the  meats  are  first  given  a  mild  cure, 
and  with  the  exception  of  dried  beef  they  are  partially  cooked 
(parboiled)  immediately  before  sealing.  The  air  is  removed  from 
the  can  or  jar  by  steam  pressure  or  pneumatic  suction,  and  the 
contents  sterilized  under  steam  pressure  after  the  can  is  sealed. 
All  lean  parts  of  the  carcass  and  especially  of  the  fore  quarter 
are  suitable  for  canned  beef.  Farts  of  the  rounds  and  chucks 
of  canner  cattle,  and  of  the  plates  of  cutters  and  dressed  beef 
sides,  have  sufficient  quality  and  thickness  to  can  in  large  pieces 
and  sell  as  roast,  boiled  or  corned  beef.  The  remaining  cuts  of 
canner  cattle,  arid  trimmings  from  beef  cuts  of  all  grades,  are 
canned  in  a  sliced,  chopped  or  ground  form  such  as  chipped  dried 
beef,  beef  loaf  and  corned-beef  hash,  or  made  into  some  variety 


/p/o]  MARKET  CLASSES  AND  GRADES  OF  MEAT  211 

of  sausage.  Canned  beef  is  principally  retailed  by  the  domestic 
grocery  trade  but  large  quantities  are  exported  fpr  the  same  pur- 
pose and  to  supply  army,  navy  and  other  contracts.  The  standard 
sizes  are  I  and  2  pound  cans,  in  cases  of  one  or  two  dozen,  but 
other  sizes  up  to  14  pound  cans  are  also  used.  • 

VEAL 

Calf  carcasses  weighing  less  than  300  pounds  with  compar- 
atively light-colored,  fine-grained  flesh  are  classed  as  veal.  The 
veal  trade  is  essentially  a  fresh  meat  trade,  but  little  being  canned 
or  cured  owing  to  the  demand  for  fresh  veal  and  the  difficulty  of 
curing  it  satisfactorily.  Considerable  veal  is  stored  in  freezers 
in  the  same  manner  as  beef.  The  wholesale  markets  handle  veal 
both  in  the  carcass  and  in  certain  cuts  of  the  same,  but  about  90 
percent  of  the  trade  consists  of  carcass  veal.  Unlike  all  other 
meats  described  in  this  bulletin,  veal  is  extensively  slaughtered 
in  the  country  and  supplied  to  the  Chicago  trade  thru  commis- 
sion houses.  About  half  of  the  local  Chicago  wholesale  trade 
consists  of  country-dressed  calves,  altho  statistics  show  a  steady 
increase  in  the  relative  number  slaughtered  by  the  leading  packers. 

CARCASS  VEAL 

In  dressing  calves,  they  are  split  only  thru  the  hench-bone 
and  breast-bone,  as  shown  in  the  illustrations.  The  skin  is  left  on 
in  order  to  preserve  the  color  and  moisture  of  the  flesh,  which  dries 
out  and  turns  dark  much  more  rapidly  than  beef  when  exposed 
to  the  air.  Calves  sold  to  local  dealers  are  often  skinned  at  the 
wholesale  markets  immediately  before  delivery.  Skinned  calves 
that  are  sold  as  carcass  veal  are  usually  either  split  thru  the  back- 
bone, making  two  equal  sides,  or  divided  into  .saddles  and  racks, 
for  convenience  in  handling.  Carcass  veal  quotations  are  based 
on  gross  weight  except  where  skinned  calves  are  specified. 

Grading  Veal 

The  grade  and  value  of  a  calf  carcass  depend  upon  its  form, 
quality,  finish  and  weight. 

The  form  or  shape  reciuired  is  a  broad,  compact  bodv  with 
full  thick  development  thruout  and  especially  in  the  ribs,  loin  and 
legs  since  those  are  the  most  valuable  parts.  Long  shanks  and 
necks,  heavv  breasts  and  sharp  backs  are  the  most  common  faults 
of  form.  Buvers  usuallv  examine  the  back,  flank  and  brisket  by 
feeling  to  determine  the  thickness  of  flesh. 

Quality  is  indicated  by  the  color  and  grain  of  flesh,  softness 
and  color  of  the  bones,  and  general  appearance  of  carcass.  The 
flesh  should  be  light  pink,  as  nearly  white  as  possible,  containing 


212  BULLETIN  No.   147  [July, 

an  abundance  of  "baby  fat"  and  free  from  spots.  It  should  be 
firm  rather  than  soft  and  flabby,  and  should  be  smooth  and  vel- 
vety in  appearance.  Dark-colored  or  coarse-grained  flesh  is  an 
indication  of  too  much  age,  insufficient  nourishment,  or  too  much 
coarse  feed;  whale  milk-fed  calves  are  easily  distinguished  from 
others  by  their  bright  fine-grained  flesh  and  clear,  white  fat.  The 
bones  should  be  small  as  indicated  especially  by  the  shanks;  and 
the  back-bone  and  breast-bone  should  be  soft  and  red.  The  ribs 
of  choice  young  calves  are  also  red  with  blood.  White,  soft,  car- 
tilages or  "buttons"  on  the  chine-bones  and  brisket  also  indicate 
desirable  quality.  Properly  finished  native  calves  four  to  six  weeks 
old  produce  the  most  salable  veal,  but  many  choice  natives  are 
eight  weeks  old;  Westerns  are  best  at  eight  or  ten  weeks;  and 
calves  under  three  weeks  old  are  subject  to  condemnation.  The 
"toes"  (dew-claws)  harden  at  two  or  three  weeks  of  age.  A  thick 
soft  coat  of  hair  and  bushy  tail  are  characteristic  of  choice  calves, 
as  against  short  hair  lying  close  tc  the  skin  and  a  small  "whip- 
lash" tail  such  as  are  often  found  on  western  calves.  Sex  is  of 
small  importance  in  carcass  veal.  Buyers  prefer  heifers  somewhat 
and  object  to  the  filling  of  orders  entirely  with  steer  or  bull  calves, 
but  usually  buy  without  reference  to  this  point. 

Finish  refers  to  the  fatness  of  the  carcass,  also  to  the  quality 
of  flesh  so  far  as  it  depends  upon  the  degree  of  fatness.  It  is 
judged  from  the  amount  of  fat  found  on  the  kidneys,  in  the  crotch 
and  on  the  flank  and  breast.  On  skinned  calves  the  "fell",  (a  thin 
membrane  which  covers  the  carcass)  appears  white  and  soft  on 
well  finished  calves,  while  on  those  lacking  finish  it  is  dry  and  dark- 
colored.  No  marbling  of  fat  is  found  in  veal  as  in  beef.  The  out- 
side fat  consists  only  of  the  "fell"  and  of  more  or  less  "baby  fat" 
at  the  flanks,  brisket  and  rump. 

Weight  is  important  in  its  influence  on  the  size  of  retail  cuts 
and  in  its  relation  to  the  age  and  quality  of  the  carcass.  Average 
weights  of  the  veal  supply  vary  greatly  with  the  season,  Seing 
lightest  in  April  and  May  with  the  advent  of  the  new  calf  crop 
and  gradually  becoming  heavier  until  the  next  annual  veal  season. 
This  variation  affects  the  grading  of  the  higher  grades  more  than 
the  lower  ones  owing  to  the  greater  importance  of  age  and  qual- 
ity in  those  grades.  The  weights  found  in  the  different  grades 
are  given  below,  and  it  will  be  observed  that  the  rating  is  chiefly 
on  the  basis  of  weight  in  the  lower  grades.  Dressed  calves  weigh- 
ing less  than  50  pounds  are  liable  to  and  usually  should  be  con- 
demned. Some  country  calves  as  light  as  35  pounds  are  received, 
but  few  below  50  pounds  are  passed  by  the  food  inspectors. 

The  grades  of  carcass  veal  as  determined  bv  the  above  fac- 
tors, the  limits  of  weight  generally  found  in  each  grade,  and  the 
weights  which  include  the  bulk  of  each  are  as  follows : 


MARKET  CLASSES  AND  GRADES  OF  MEAT  213 

GRADES.  EXTREME  WEIGHTS  WEIGHT  OF  BULK 

Choice    80  to  120  Ib.  90  to  100  Ib. 

Good    70  to  130  Ib.  75  to    95  Ib. 

Medium     60  to  160  Ib.  65  to    80  Ib. 

Light  or   Common    40  to     75  Ib.  50  to     65  Ib. 

Heavy 150  to  300  Ib.  160  to  200  Ib. 

CHOICE  CAL,VES 

Choice  or  No.  i  calves,  besides  weighing  within  the  limits  given 
above,  must  have  the  form,  quality  and  finish  described  in  the 
paragraphs  on  grading  veal.  They  may  be  from  four  to  eight 
weeks  old,  depending  upon  weight  and  finish.  See  Fig.  34.. 

GOOD  CALVES 

Good  veal  consists  of  calves  which  fall  short  of  the  most  select 
grade  by  reason  of  a  deficiency  or  excess  of  weight  and  age;  or,  if 
within  the  requirements  in  those  particulars,  lack  of  finish,  quality 
or  form.  Insufficient  weight  and  finish  are  the  most  common  de- 
fects of  good  veals  as  compared  with  the  choice  grade.  See 
Fig-  34- 

MEDIUM  CALVES 

Calves  are  more  often  too  light  than  too  heavy  to  grade  good 
or  choice,  and  the  finish  of  small  calves  is  usually  in  keeping  with 
their  weight.  Accordingly,  medium  veal  (also  called  fair)  gen- 
erally runs  below  80  pounds.  Scarcely  any  dressed  calves  over 
1 60  pounds  are  sold  for  Chicago  city  trade,  the  heavier  ones  be- 
ing sent  to  outside  markets.  The  kidney  fat  is  usually  less  abund- 
ant than  in  good  calves  and  the  form  not  so  smooth  nor  compact. 
Many  in  this  grade  are  narrow  in  the  back,  loin  and  ribs,  light 
in  the  flank  and  sharp  in  the  chine.  See  Fig.  35. 

LIGHT  CALVES 

Except  in  unusual  cases,  veal  carcasses  weighing  less  than  65 
pounds  are  graded  as  common  or  culls  because  of  the  small  demand 
for  veal  of  such  light  weights.  The  restricted  demand  is  due 
to  the  lack  of  finish  found  in  such  carcasses  and  their  soft,  un- 
developed flesh.  Kidney  fat  is  absent  or  nearly  so.  Many  cull 
calves  are  barely  old  enough  to  pass  inspection.  The  lighest  culls 
(35  or  40  pounds)  are  known  as  "bob  veal"  and  are  usually  con- 
demned. See  Fig.  35. 

HEAVY  CALVES 

Heavy  veal  calves  vary  more  in  quality,  finish  and  weight  than 
light  young  calves,  and  this  grade  includes  both  smooth,  thick 


214 


BULLETIN  No.   147 


(July, 


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MARKET  CLASSES  AND  GRADES  OF  MEAT 


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216  BULLETIN  No.   147  [July, 

calves  of  150  to  300  pounds  weight,  and  the  coarse,  "bony"  sort  of 
the  same  weights.  As  a  class  they  sell  lower  than  light  calves  but 
in  some  markets  and  especially  in  small  cities  heavy,  well  fattened 
veals  sell  as  high  as  light  and  medium  grades.  Neither  heavy 
nor  light  calves  are  valued  higher  than  the  medium  grade  under 
ordinary  conditions.  The  heavy  weights  are  quoted  relatively 
higher  during  spring  and  early  summer,  when  light  calves  are 
most  plentiful,  than  at  other  seasons.  It  is  customary  to  skin 
and  split  the  heaviest  calves  shipped  from  wholesale  houses.  See 
Fig-  35- 

"Native"  and  "Western"  Veal      . 

Among  dressed  calves  of  the  various  grades  are  found  those 
which  have  apparently  been  fattened  on  milk  under  shelter  with 
little  exercise,  and  shipped  but  a  short  distance,  if  any,  before 
slaughtering;  and  another  class  of  calves  which  have  had  little 
milk,  much  exercise,  and  shrinkage  incident  to  exposure  or  too 
long  shipment  on  foot.  The  former  are  called  "Natives".  They 
have,  as  a  rule,  long,  soft  hair  with  bushy  tail  and  light-colored, 
fine-grained  flesh,  indicating  indoor  feeding  and  an  abundance  of 
milk.  They  consist  largely  of  young  calves  of  choice,  good  and 
light  grades.  Over  90  percent  of  the  dressed  veal  handled  at 
Chicago  is  "Native"  veal,  about  half  of  which  consists  of  country- 
dressed  calves  consigned  to  commission  firms.  A  large  percentage 
of  veal  shipments  sent  east  is.  also  made  up  of  "Natives". 

"Western"  calves  have  coarse,  dark-colored  flesh  and  short, 
straight  hair,  which  are  indications  of  insufficient  nourishment 
and  care.  The  bones  are  whiter  and  less  spongy  than  those  of 
"Natives",  indicating  more  age.  They  grade  principally  as  med- 
iwn,  heavy,  and  light.  Many  Western  calves  slaughtered  at  Miss- 
ouri river  markets  and  Ft.  Worth  are  received  at  Chicago.  "Wes- 
terns" are  best  adapted  to  the  trade  of  small  cities  and  towns  be- 
cause of  the  wider  range  of  weights  and  quality  which  is  salable 
in  such  markets.  A  large  proportion  of  Western-dressed  calves 
are  frozen  during  the  summer  and  fall,  and  held  for  winter  trade. 
They  are  skinned  before  freezing.  All  grades  of  "Westerns"  are 
frozen,  and  the  weights  most  used  for  this  purpose  are  100  to  175 
pounds. 

Kosher  veal  consists  of  the  fore  quarters  (including  12  ribs) 
of  calves  slaughtered  and  handled  according  to  Jewish  regulations 
similar  to  those  that  apply  to  cattle  (p.  188).  Choice,  good  and 
medium  calves  are  the  grades  principally  used. 


79/0] 


MARKET  CLASSES  AND  GRADES  OF  MEAT 


217 


FIG.  36.    VEAL  CUTS. 

1,  2.     Saddle  (or  2  hind  quarters).      1.  Leg- 

2.  Loin 

3,  4.     Rack  (or  2  fore  quarters).         3.  Ribs 

4.  Stew 

VEAL  CUTS 

Only  10  to  20  percent  of  the  supply  of  dressed  calves  are  cut  up 
in  the  wholesale  trade,  since  most  retail  markets  that  handle  veal 
have  demand  for  all  cuts.  A  few  high-class  markets,  however, 
require  a  larger  proportion  of  choice  than  of  cheap  cuts;  Kosher 


218 


BULLETIN  No.   147 


[July, 


FIG   37a.    VEAI,  SADDLES. 


Choice 


Good 


trade  takes  only  a  part  of  the  fore  quarters;  and  a  small  percent 
of  the  supply  is  cut  on  account  of  bruises  and  other  defects.  Veal 
cuts  are  made  from  all  grades  of  carcasses  but  principally  from 
those  not  better  than  medium  to  good  in  quality  and  weighing 
70  to  1 20  pounds.  The  carcass  is  skinned  before  cutting. 

The  cuts  most  commonly  made  are  the  saddle  and  rack  (Fig. 
36).  The  carcass  is  "ribbed"  between  the  eleventh  and  twelfth 
ribs,  the  hind  quarters  together  forming  the  saddle,  and  the  fores, 
the  rack.  They  are  about  equal  in  weight.  In  some  markets  the 
division  is  made  between  the  tenth  and  eleventh  ribs.  Skinned 
calves  are  sometimes  split  into  sides  in  the  same  manner  as  a  car- 
cass of  beef.  They  are  also  quoted  as  separate  fore  and  hind 
quarters. 


MARKET  CLASSES  AND  GRADES  OF  MEAI 


219 


FIG  37b.     VEAL  SADDLES. 


Medium. 


Common. 


SADDLES 

The  grades  of  saddless  are  choice,  good,  medium  and  common 
(Fig.  37).  They  weigh  30  to  125  pounds  and  the  lighter  weights 
are  usually  quoted  highest.  The  most  essential  points  in  addi- 
tion to  weight  are  fullness  of  loin  and  leg;  firm,  light-colored 
flesh;  soft  back-bone  and  hench-bone;  and  a  proper  amount  of 
fat,  especially  evident  at  the  crotch,  kidneys  and  flanks.  The 
value  of  a  saddle  depends  upon  the  quality  and  size  of  loin  chops 
and  leg  roasts  or  cutlets  which  can  be  cut  from  it  by  the  retailer. 
The  two  loins  are  frequently  sold  in  one  piece,  including  about 
one-sixth  of  the  carcass  weight  and  averaging  10  to  25  pounds. 
The  legs  constitute  slightly  more  than  one-third  the  carcass  weight 
and  average  20  to  40  pounds  per  pair. 


220 


BULLETIN  No.   147 


(July, 


FIG.  38a.     VEAI,  RA.CKS. 


Choice. 


Good. 


Hind  quarters  are  graded  in  the  same  manner  as  saddles,  and 
the  weights  quoted  are  15  to  60  pounds. 

RACKS 

Racks  are  graded  choice,  good,  medium  and  common  and  are 
quoted  in  the  same  weights  as  saddles,  viz.,  30  to  125  pounds 
(Fig.  38).  They  are  judged  largely  by  the  thickness,  quality 
and  color  of  flesh;  softness  and  color  of  back-bone,  brisket  and 
ribs ;  and  shortness  of  shanks  and  neck.  The  part  of  the  rack 
most  valuable  to  the  retailer  is  the  rib  cut  or  hotel  rack,  which  is 
used  for  chops.  This  is  sold  as  a  wholesale  cut  in  some  mar- 
kets, weighing  5  to  12  pounds.  The  remainder  of  the  rack  is 
known  as  the  stew  or  chuck.  The  two  chucks  include  about  one- 
third  of  the  carcass  weight,  and  average  10  to  25  pounds  each. 

Fore  quarters  are  sold  separately  to  a  small  extent.  They  are 
graded  on  the  same  basis  as  racks  and  weigh  the  same  as  hind 
quarters,  viz.,  15  to  60  pounds. 


MARKET  CLASSES  AND  GRADES  OF  MEAT 


221 


FIG.  38b     VEAI,  RACKS. 


Medium. 


Common. 


A  body  of  veal  is  the  carcass  minus  the  legs.  It  includes 
slightly  less  than  two-thirds  the  weight  of  carcass.  Bodies  are 
graded  in  the  same  manner  as  carcass  veal. 

MUTTON  AND  LAMB 

Dressed  sheep  and  lambs  are  handled  and  classified  together 
in  the  wholesale  trade  and  may  therefore  be  described  and  illus- 
trated together  most  readily.  Mutton  and  lamb  are  sold  almost 
entirely  as  fresh  or  frozen  meats,  and  the  bulk  of  supplies,  except 
those  frozen,  are  disposed  of  within  a  week  or  ten  days  after 
slaughter.  Chilled  and  frozen  mutton  and  lamb  are  handled  at 
the  same  temperatures  as  beef.  Only  a  few  heavy  fat  sheep  are  held 
in  chill  rooms  for  ripening.  The  freezing  of  mutton  and  lamb, 
however,  is  carried  on  to  the  same  relative  extent  as  that  of  beef. 
The  freezing  season  extends  from  September  to  February.  Only 
a  small  percentage,  and  that  of  the  lowest  grades,  is  canned,  and 
practically  none  is  cured. 


222  BULLETIN  No.   147  [July, 

Because  of  their  high  market  value,  mutton  and  lamb  are 
used  by  a  wealthier  class  of  consumers  on  the  whole  than  beef, 
pork  or  even  veal.  Careful  and  quick  slaughtering  and  good 
facilities  for  refrigeration  are  more  essential  to  the  proper  hand- 
ling of  this  meat  than  is  true  of  beef  or  pork.  For  these  reasons 
the  use  of  mutton  and  lamb  is  more  largely  confined  to  city  mar- 
kets, and  they  come  into  closer  competition  with  poultry,  game, 
etc.,  than  is  true  of  other  meats.  For  the  same  reasons,  together 
with  the  fact  that  lamb  is  equal  or  superior  to  mature  mutton 
in  flavor  and  palatability,  the  demand  for  lamb  is  large  in  com- 
parison with  mutton,  and  approximately  two-thirds  to  three- 
fourths  of  the  wholesale  supply  of  mutton  and  lamb  consists  of 
the  latter.  The  wholesale  trade  in  both  lamb  and  mutton  has 
shown  a  remarkable  increase  during  the  past  fifteen  years,  hav- 
ing at  least  doubled  during  that  period.  Improvement  in  quality 
of  supplies  and  the  development  of  facilities  for  slaughter  and 
distribution  have  rapidly  stimulated  demand  among  all  classes  of 
consumers. 

The  proportion  of  dressed  sheep  and  lambs  to  cuts  of  the  same 
sold  in  the  wholesale  markets  varies  widely.  In  most  large  cities 
one-half  to  three-fourths  of  the  trade  is  made  up  of  whole  car- 
casses. 

CARCASS  MUTTON  AND  LAMB 

Various  styles  of  dressing  are  used  for  different  branches  of 
the  trade,  and  since  the  market  value  depends  upon  the  manner  of 
dressing  as  well  as  the  grade  of  meat,  both  are  usually  specified  in 
mutton  and  lamb  quotations.  Plain  or  round-dressed  (R.D.) 
sheep  and  lambs  have  the  pelt,  head  and  toes  removed  and  fore- 
leg folded  at  the  knee ;  they  are  opened  only  from  the  cod  or 
bag  to  the  breast,  split  about  half  way  thru  the  breast-bone, 
and  a  spread-stick  placed  inside  the  fore-ribs.  (Fig.  40.)  This 
is  the  style  most  commonly  used  in  dressing  sheep;  and  the 
best  grades  of  lambs  are  usually  dressed  in  the  same  manner. 
Caul-dressed  (C.D.)  carcasses  have  the  ribs  and  flanks  turned 
outward  and  fastened  back  with  set-sticks,  and  the  caul  wrapped 
about  the  legs  and  laid  over  the  inside  of  carcass  (Fig.  46)  ;  the 
object  being  to  improve  the  appearance,  prevent  drying  out  and  in 
some  cases  (especially  in  lambs)  to  furnish  the  fat  necessary  for 
proper  cooking.  The  lowest  grades  of  sheep  and  all  grades  of 
lambs  are  caul-dressed.  The  term  pelt  on  refers  to  lambs  from 
which  the  pelt  and  head  have  not  been  removed.  This  style  is 


/p/o]  MARKET  CLASSES  AND  GRADES  OF  MEAT  223 

generally  confined  to  light  lambs.  They  are  opened  the  same  as 
round  lambs,  and  in  some  markets  are  dressed  with  back-sets,  and 
caul  laid  over  the  belly.  Sheep  and  lambs  dressed  either  plain, 
round,  or  "pelt  on"  are  quoted  pluck  in  and  pluck  out.  The  pluck 
consists  of  the  heart^  lungs,  liver  and  windpipe  and  is  either  left 
attached  to  the  carcass  or  removed,  as  indicated  by  these  terms. 
Lambs  are  generally  sold  pluck  in  and  sheep  pluck  out.  Govern- 
ment regulations  now  require  the  toes  to  be  removed  from  all 
dressed  sheep  and  lambs.  Some  of  the  photographs  reproduced  in 
this  bulletin  were  made  before  this  rule  was  passed. 

CLASSES  AND  GRADES  OF  CARCASS  MUTTON  AND  LAMB 

The  classes  of  dressed  sheep  and  lambs  are  Wethers,  Ezves, 
Bucks,  Yearlings  and  Lambs.  This  classification  is  based  on  dif- 
ferences in  sex  and  degree  of  maturity  which  will  be  described  in 
connection  with  each  class. 

The  grades  of  carcasses  in  the  different  classes  are  designated 
by  the  terms  choice,  good,  medium,  common  and  culls  or  canners. 
Altho  the  terms  "prime",  "fancy",  "extra  choice",  etc.,  are  some- 
times used  in  referring  to  carcasses  of  "show  quality",  they  are 
less  commonly  used  than  in  the  beef  trade  owing  to  the  wider 
variation  which  exists  between  the  grades  of  beef;  and  the  term 
choice  is  generally  applied  to  all  mutton  and  lamb  above  the  good 
grade.  Medium  and  fair  denote  the  same  grade,  and  refer  to  the 
average  of  each  class. 

Grading  Mutton  and  Lamb 

The  grade  and  value  of  a  carcass  depend  chiefly  upon  its  form, 
quality,  covering  and  weight.  The  method  of  grading  is  the  same 
in  principle  as  the  grading  of  beef,  which  has  been  fully  explained 
(p.  156).  It  is  only  necessary,  therefore,  to  state  the  specific 
points  to  which  these  terms  apply  in  the  grading  of  dressed  sheep 
and  lambs. 

Form.  Good  width  in  proportion  to  length  together  with  com<- 
pactness  and  smooth  even  outlines  are  the  essential  points  of  good 
shape.  This  implies  a  thick  loin,  broad  back,  well-meated  ribs,  a 
full,  thick  middle  from  shoulder  to  leg,  plump,  thick  legs  filled 
well  down  on  the  shanks,  and  smoothly  covered  shoulders.  The 
most  common  faults  of  form  are  long,  slender  legs,  narrow  backs, 
lack  of  development  over  ribs  and  loin,  and  too  much  "barrel"  or 
"belly".  Long  necks  in  ewes  and  heavy  "bucky"  necks,  shoulders 
and  briskets  in  wethers  are  objectionable. 


224  BULLETIN  No.   147  [July, 

Covering.  This  refers  to  the  fatness  of  the  carcass.  It  is 
essential  because  of  its  influence  on  the  appearance  of  the  dressed 
sheep,  quality  of  the  meat  and  shrinkage  both  in  storage  and  in 
cooking.  The  fat  should  be  smooth  and  even  over  the  entire 
carcass,  but  only  in  the  most  highly  finished  sheep  are  the  legs 
and  shanks  completely  covered.  The  kidney  fat  is  an  important 
indication  of  finish  in  the  minds  of  mutton  experts.  It  should  be 
well-developed  but  not  excessive.  A  light  kidney  usually  indi- 
cates lack  of  finish,  while  a  very  heavy  one  shows  either  an  over- 
done condition  or  an  uneven  distribution  of  fat.  The  cod,  udder, 
rump,  flanks  and  brisket  are  other  points  at  which  the  amount  of 
fat  is  plainly  apparent,  but  it  should  not  be  excessive  at  any  of 
these  parts.  The  lowest  grades  have  practically  no  outside  fat 
and  the  amount  of  covering  varies  more  or  less  directly  with  the 
grades  of  mutton  from  common  to  choice.  The  covering  and 
kidney-fat  should  be  firm,  brittle  and  white. 

Quality.  Altho  a  carcass  of  high  quality  must  be  good  in 
form  and  covering,  it  must,  in  addition,  have  proper  quality  of 
flesh  and  bone,  and  good  general  appearance.  The  flesh  should 
be  firm  and  fine-grained,  without  the  stringy,  coarse  appearance 
of  aged  or  inferior  mutton.  The  color  of  flesh  varies  from  light 
pink  in  lambs  to  dull  red  in  mature  mutton,  and  is  less  variable  than 
in  beef.  The  covering  and  kidney-fat  should  be  clear  and  white. 
The  bones  are  an  important  indication  of  the  maturity  of  the 
carcass.  In  lambs  the  brisket  is  soft  and  red,  and  the  ribs  and 
shank  bones  are  colored  by  blood-vessels.  In  mature  sheep  the 
bones  are  white  and  hard.  The  break-joint  (Fig.  39)  which  is 
described  in  connection  with  yearlings  (p.  231),  distinguishes 
lambs  and  yearlings  from  mature  sheep.  In  no  branch  of  the  meat 
trade  is  general  quality  so  important  as  in  mutton  and  lamb,  owing 
to  the  custom  of  using  the  carcasses  for  display  purposes  in  retail 
markets.  It  must  be  so  dressed,  chilled  and  handled  as  to  have 
a  bright  attractive  appearance.  In  grading  caul-dressed  carcasses 
the  color  and  quality  of  the  caul  are  considered  and  it  should  be 
white  and  brittle.  The  quality  of  "pelt  on"  lambs  is  judged  partially 
by  the  pelt  and  head,  which  should  show  no  signs  of  coarseness. 
The  plucks  of  lambs  dressed  "pluck  in"  must  have  a  bright  fresh 
appearance.  This  depends  largely  upon  careful  slaughter  and 
refrigeration. 

Weight.  This  is  a  more  important  factor  in  grading  mutton 
than  in  grading  beef  because  differences  in  form,  covering  and 
quality  are  smaller  than  in  beef,  and  because  the  weight  is  often  a 
strong  indication  as  to  whether  a  carcass  is  a  lamb,  yearling  or 


MARKET  CLASSES  AND  GRADES  OF  MEAT 


225 


FIG    3'J.     '-ROUND''  AND  "BREAK"  JOINTS. 

mature  sheep.  The  weights  purchased  by  a  retailer  depend  upon 
the  size  of  chops  and  roasts  which  his  customers  demand ;  con- 
sequently the  most  desirable  weights  in  the  different  classes  are 
confined  to  rather  narrow  limits.  In  this  respect  the  mutton  and 
lamb  trade  is  similar  to  veal.  Weight  is  of  more  importance  in 
lambs  and  yearlings  than  in  wethers  and  ewes,  and  in  the  higher 
rather  than  the  lower  grades  of  each  class.  Its  importance  also 
varies  at  different  seasons  and  with  varying  conditions  of  supply 
and  demand. 


WETHERS 

Wether  carcasses  are  distinguished  from  ewes  by  the  cod-fat, 
from  bucks  by  their  smaller  necks  and  shoulders  and  finer  quality ; 
and  from  yearlings  and  wether  lambs  by  "round"  joints  on  the 
fore-legs  (Fig.  39).  In  general  they  are  superior  to  ewes  in 
compactness  of  form,  shortness  of  neck  and  thickness  of  flesh.  Few 
high  grade  wethers  are  seen  in  the  wholesale  meat  markets  and  the 
supply  consists  largely  of  Westerns.  They  are  shipped  principally 
to  smaller  markets  and  are  occasionally  exported,  tho  the  export 
trade  has  largely  decreased.  The  grades  of  this  class  are  choice, 
good,  medium  and  common;  extreme  weights  of  the  regular  sup- 
ply are  40  and  120  pounds. 


226  BULLETIN  No.  147  [July, 

Choice  wethers  fulfil  all  the  conditions  specified  in  the  para- 
graph on  grading  mutton.  Even  covering  and  quality  are  es- 
pecially important;  wasty,  plain  or  staggy  wethers  are  discrim- 
inated against.  Weights  in  this  grade  run  from  50  to  100  pounds, 
with  a  few  up  to  120  pounds;  the  handy  weights  are  50  to  65 
pounds  and  bulk  of  supplies  weigh  50  to  70  pounds.  There  is 
a  limited  but  regular  domestic  demand  for  this  mutton  in  large 
city  hotels  and  restaurants  and  in  the  dining-car  and  steamboat 
trade.  See  Fig.  40. 

Good  wethers  differ  from  those  of  choice  grade  chiefly  in 
covering  and  general  quality,  the  majority  of  this  grade  being 
slightly  lacking  in  development  of  flesh  and  fat.  The  covering, 
however,  must  be  sufficient  to  suit  the  consumer  of  heavy  chops 
and  the  quality  of  flesh  must  be  similar  to  that  of  choice  wethers, 
since  both  grades  are  used  largely  by  the  same  class  of  trade.  A 
small  proportion  of  wethers  in  this  grade  are  too  fat  to  grade 
choice.  The  weight  seldom  exceeds  100  pounds;  minimum  and 
average  weights  are  about  the  same  as  of  choice  wethers.  See 
Fig.  40. 

Medium  wethers  are  the  average  dressed  sheep  of  this  class 
and  are  plainly  deficient  in  shape,  covering  and  quality.  How^ 
ever,  they  are  not  greatly  inferior  in  either  of  these  particulars, 
and  may  be  good  or  choice  in  one  or  more  of  the  points  mentioned, 
especially  in  form  or  quality.  Most  medium  wethers  are  partially 
covered  with  fat  over  the  back,  loin  and  ribs,  but  lack  covering 
on  the  legs  and  shoulders.  On  the  other  hand,  extremely  fat, 
"gobby"  wethers,  especially  those  of  plain  quality  and  heavy 
weight,  are  sold  at  the  price  of  medium  sheep.  This  grade  also 
includes  a  small  proportion  of  wethers  that  are  somewhat  staggy 
or  bucky.  Extreme  weights  found  in  this  grade  are  40  and  90 
pounds ;  the  bulk  weigh  45  to>  60  pounds.  See  Fig.  40. 

Common  wethers  are  the  lowest  standard  grade  of  wethers. 
Generally  they  have  a  small  amount  of  covering  over  the  back  and 
loin  but  none  on  the  legs;  the  poorest  specimens  of  the  grade, 
however,  have  no  outside  covering  and  but  little  fat  on  the  kid- 
neys. They  are  of  very  plain  form  and  quality  being  thinly  covered 
with  dry,  dark  colored  flesh,  and  flinty  in  bone.  To  some  extent 
they  are  caul-dressed,  especially  the  most  undesirable  sheep  of 
the  grade,  and  cauls  from  high  grade  sheep  are  frequently  used  for 
this  purpose.  They  weigh  30  to  80  pounds  with  the  bulk  from 
40  to  60  pounds.  Few  of  this  grade  are  shipped  and  the  bulk 
are  taken  by  retailers  who  supply  a  cheap  trade.  See  Fig.  40. 

A  few  dressed  wethers  of  such  inferior  quality  as  to  be  unsuit- 
able for  block  use  are  found  in  the  wholesale  trade,  but  owing 


ip/o] 


MARKET  CLASSES  AND  GRADES  OF  MEAT 


227 


fa 


228 


BULLETIN  No.  147 


[July, 


to  the  small  and  irregular  supply  they  can  not  be  considered  a 
standard  grade.  The  description  of  canner  ewes  and  their  use 
(p.  230)  is  applicable  to  such  wethers. 

EWES 

The  "bag"  (udder)  and  a  comparatively  large  "bung"  (pelvic 
cavity)  are  characteristic  of  this  class  of  carcass  mutton.  Ewe 
carcasses  are  also  distinguished  from  wethers  as  a  rule  by  their 
more  angular  forms,  longer  necks,  smaller  bones  and  less  abundant 
flesh  especially  over  the  loin,  back  and  ribs.  In  general  quality 
and  market  value  they  compare  with  wethers  to  practially  the  same 
degree  that  cow  and  heifer  beef  compares  with  steers.  Like 
wethers,  they  have  "round"  leg-joints.  They  are  usually  more 
numerous  in  the  markets  than  wethers,  and  about  two-thirds  of 
the  supply  of  fat,  heavy  mutton  consists  of  ewes.  At  the  same 
time,  a  larger  proportion  of  dressed  ewes  is  found  in  the  lower 


Choice 


FIG.  41.    EWES. 

Good  (3). 


MARKET  CLASSES  AND  GHAUTS  OF  MEAT 


229 


grades  than  is  true  of  wethers,  owing  mainly  to  uneven  covering 
and  deficient  quality.  Light-weight  dressed  ewes  usually  classify 
as  "sheep"  instead  of  yearlings  because  their  shanks  do  not  "break" 
like  yearling  wethers  of  the  same  age  and  grade  (p.  231).  The 
grades  of  this  class  are  choice,  good,  medium,  common  and  culls 
or  canners. 

Choice  ewes  are  similar  to  the  corresponding  grades  of  wethers 
excepting  the  differences  enumerated  in  the  preceding  paragraph. 
As  a  rule  they  carry  more  covering  and  kidney-fat  in  proportion 
to  flesh  than  wethers.  Choice  light  ewes  (50  to  60  pounds)  are 
usually  in  greater  demand  than  heavy  carcasses  because  they  are 
less  "wasty"  in  covering;  but  a  limited  number  of  fat  100  to  120 
pound  ewes  is  in  constant  demand  for  the  "English  chop*'  trade 


Medium. 


FIG.  42.    EWES. 

Common. 


Canner. 


230  BULLETIN  No.   147  [July, 

of  large  hotels  and  restaurants,  and  choice  ewe  carcasses  as  heavy 
as  200  pounds  are  occasionally  seen.  See  Fig.  41. 

Good  ewes  consist  chiefly  of  50  to  70  pound  sheep  slightly 
wanting  in  covering,  shape  or  quality;  also  over-fat  carcasses  of 
the  heavier  weights.  The  former  are  sold  largely  to  country 
or  "car-route"  trade  and  the  latter  to  hotel  and  shipping  trade. 
See.  Fig.  41. 

Medium  ewes  are  those  that  are  quite  deficient  in  general  de- 
velopment, or  good  in  some  particulars  and  decidedly  inferior  in 
others,  such  as  quality  and  finish.  They  weigh  40  to  100  pounds, 
but  the  general  run  average  45  to  65  pounds.  See  Fig.  42. 

Common  ewes  have  little  or  no  outside  fat.  They  are  still 
darker  in  flesh  and  whiter  in  bone  than  common  wethers  and  many 
"shelly"  ill-shaped  carcasses  are  found  in  this  grade.  They  weigh 
30  to  60  pounds  with  a  few  coarse  plain  carcasses  up  to  80 
or  90  pounds.  See  Fig.  42. 

Culls  or  canners  are  the  most  inferior  dressed  sheep  in  the 
market,  and  consist  principally  of  old  ewes.  They  are  entirely 
devoid  of  fat  and  have  not  sufficient  flesh  to  be  suitable  for  chops 
or  roasts  of  even  the  cheapest  grades.  They  are  generally  so  de^ 
ficient  in  flesh  that  the  sides  are  almost  transparent,  and  are 
familiarly  known  to  the  trade  as  "jack-o'-lanterns"  and  "shells". 
They  are  most  numerous  during  the  fall  and  early  winter.  The 
weights  are  25  to  45  pounds  and  the  bulk,  30  to  40  pounds.  In 
most  wholesale  markets  such  sheep  are  sold  to  city  dealers  who 
supply  certain  laboring  classes  that  are  accustomed  to  use  the  cheap- 
est mutton  for  stewing  and  boiling  purposes.  Canners  are  packed 
by  a  few  firms  in  the  form  of  "roast  mutton",  "potted  meats", 
"meat  loaf"  and  certain  varieties  of  sausage.  See  Fig.  42. 

BUCKS 

This  class  makes  up  only  a  very  small  percent  of  the  dressed 
sheep  supply.  Bucks  can  be  identified  by  their  thick,  heavy  necks, 
shoulders  and  briskets;  large  bones,  coarse,  dark  colored  flesh 
and  fat,  and  thick,  oily  "skin".  Market  quotations  do  not  rec- 
ognize them  as  a  class,  but  they  are  sold  separately  from  other 
dressed  sheep,  excepting  light  bucks  that  resemble  wethers  in  cov- 
ering, form  and  quality,  Many  stags  and  some  bucks  are  difficult 
to  distinguish  from  wethers;  and  staggy  wethers  (p.  226)  sell 
at  a  discount;  consequently  the  two  classes  overlap  \o  somfc  ex- 
tent. Altho  the  general  run  of  bucks  are  sold  as  such  in  whole- 
sale markets,  and  are  valued  20  to  25  percent  lower  than  wethers 
of  the  same  grades  and  weights,  they  are  cut  by  retailers  and  job- 
bers in  the  same  manner  as  wethers,  and  the  retail  cuts  are  sold 
quite  extensively  to  the  same  classes  of  trade. 


MARKET  CLASSES  AND  GRADES  OF  MEAT  231 

The  grades  of  bucks  are  less  distinct  than  those  of  other  classes 
of  mutton.  The  terms  generally  used  are  good,  medium  and  com- 
mon. Good  bucks  are  well  covered  with  fat  and  have  a  fairly 
good  quality  of  flesh.  The  term  "choice"  is  occasionally  applied  to 
selected  buck  carcasses  which  are  of  exceptional  quality  and  finish. 
Yearling  bucks  are  generally  graded  good,  since  they  resemble 
wethers  more  nearly  than  is  true  of  heavy  bucks.  Medium  and 
common  bucks  are  graded  similarly  to  the  corresponding  grades 
of  wethers,  considering  the  general  differences  noted  above.  The 
bulk  of  supplies  in  this  class  weigh  60  to  90  pounds;  few  exceed 
100  pounds,  and  yearling  bucks  average  45  to  70  pounds.  See 

.  43- 


This  class  may  be  defined  as  carcasses  that  show  by  their  gen- 
eral development  and  by  the  "break-joint"  that  they  are  not  ma- 
ture sheep,  but  are  too  old  and  generally  too  heavy  to  be  classed 
as  lambs.  The  "break-joint"  or  "  lamb-joint"  is  a  temporary 
cartilage  which  forms  a  dentate  suture  in  the  head  of  the  shank 
(shin-bone)  immediately  above  the  ankle.  (Fig.  39.)  In  dressing 
lambs,  yearling  wethers  and  some  yearling  ewes  the  foot  can  be 
broken  off  at  this  cartilage,  giving  the  end  of  the  shank  a  saw- 
tooth shape;  in  lambs  the  broken  surface  is  smooth  and  moist,  and 
in  yearlings  it  becomes  more  porous  and  dry.  The  shanks  of  ma- 
ture sheep  will  not  "break"  because  the  cartilage  is  knit  or  ossified 
and  the  foot  is  taken  off  at  the  ankle  instead,  making  a  "roundr 
joint".  Shanks  of  female  or  ewe  sheep  outside  the  lamb  class  are, 
as  a  rule,  too  mature  to  "break".  Consequently,  yearlings  con- 
sist chiefly  (80  to  90  percent)  of  wethers;  the  remainder  are  ewes 
and  a  small  proportion  of  bucks  and  stags  which  in  this  class  fre- 
quently approach  wethers  in  general  quality.  It  will  be  seen  from 
the  foregoing  statements  that  yearlings  are  an  intermediate  class 
which  in  certain  respects  resemble  dressed  sheep  on  one  hand  and 
lambs  on  the  other.  In  fact,  the  terms  "yearling  lambs"  and 
"yearling  sheep"  are  frequently  used  by  dealers  in  referring  to 
carcasses  of  this  description. 

Yearlings  are  usually  dressed  "plain"  because  of  the  high  av- 
erage of  the  class  in  covering,  form  and  quality  as  well  as  their 
weight,  and  are  sometimes  called  "plain  breakers".  As  a  class 
they  are  superior  to  wethers,  ewes  and  bucks,  especially  in  covering 
and  smoothness  of  finish.  Weight  is  a  factor  of  special  importance 
in  this  class  because,  other  conditions  being  equal,  it  determines 
whether  the  carcass  sells  on  a  par  with  heavy,  round-dressed  lambs 
or  whether  it  must  compete  with  wethers.  A  large  proportion  of 
the  yearling  mutton  supply  is  sold  to  the  same  class  of  trade  as 


232 


BULLETIN  No.   147 


[Inly, 


MARKET  CLASSES  AND  GRADES  OF  MEAT 


233 


234  BULLETIN  No.   147  [July, 

heavy  lambs.  Weights  in  this  class  range  from  40  to  60  pounds. 
The  grades  are  choice,  good  and  medium.  Yearlings  which  fall 
below  medium  in  form,  covering  and  quality  or  above  the  weight 
mentioned  are  generally  too  mature  to  "break",  hence  a  common 
grade  is  not  recognized  in  this  class. 

Choice  yearlings  are  well  covered  with  fat,  with  a  medium 
kidney,  compact  well-rounded  form  and  strictly  choice  quality. 
Bright  color  of  flesh  and  fat  and  evidence  of  immaturity  in  the 
bones  are  important,  since  this  grade  is  substituted  for  lambs  to 
a  considerable  extent.  They  average  40  to  55  pounds.  See 
Fig.  44. 

Good  yearlings  include  carcasses  that  are  slightly  underfinished 
or  lacking  choice  quality,  and  those  which  have  indications  of 
more  age  than  choice  yearlings.  A  small  proportion  of  yearlings 
are  too  thickly  and  unevenly  covered  with  fat  and  tho  otherwise 
choice,  are  graded  good.  They  weigh  40  to  50  pounds. 

Medium  yearlings  are  made  up  of  a  still  greater  variety  of 
carcasses  than  the  good  grade.  The  form  and  quality  are  often 
decidedly  plain  and  the  covering  deficient,  but  a  few  carcasses  of 
heavy  weight  and  good  quality  sell  better  as  medium  yearlings 
than  as  good  wethers,  and  are  so  graded.  A  few  slightly  staggy 
or  bucky  sheep  are  also  included.  The  weights  in  this  grade  vary 
from  45  to  50  pounds.  See  Fig.  44. 

"Choppers"  or  "chop-offs"  are  a  grade  of  mutton  between 
yearlings  and  sheep,  consisting  of  light,  handy  young  sheep  weigh- 
ing 40  to  50  pounds,  of  common  to  medium  quality,  similar  to 
yearlings  in  size  and  shape,  suitable  to  use  as  a  substitute  for  year- 
lings of  low  grade  and  dressed  to  supply  a  class  of  retail  trade 
which  demands  yearlings  and  lambs  but  at  a  moderate  price.  They 
are  caul-dressed.  Wethers  and  ewes  are  included  in  this  grade. 
See  Fig.  44. 

LAMBS 

Carcasses  of  sheep  that  are  more  immature  than  yearlings 
are  classed  as  lambs.  The  difference  in  degree  of  maturity  is 
indicated  principally  by  lighter  color  and  finer  grain  of  flesh,  red- 
der and  softer  bones,  and  a  break-joint  that  is  smoother  and  more 
moist  to  the  touch,  combined  generally  with  lighter  weight  of 
carcass.  Sex  is  not  specified  in  lamb  quotations  and  only  in  fancy 
trade  is  discrimination  made  in  favor  of  wether  lambs. 

About  two-thirds  to  three-fourths  of  the  wholesale  mutton 
and  lamb  trade  consists  of  lambs  and  they  are  sold  chiefly  to  city 
dealers.  The  retail  market  trade  of  Chicago  uses  lambs  almost  to 
the  exclusion  of  mature  mutton.  This  is  due  to  the  demand  tor 


MARKET  CLASSES  AND  GRADES  OF  MEAT 


235 


Choice. 


FlG.  45.      lyAMBS. 
Good.  Medium. 


Common. 


236  BULLETIN  No.   147 

small  lean  chops  and  legs  of  lamb,  together  with  the  fact  that 
lamb  is  superior  to  mutton  in  tenderness  and  flavor. 

The  majority  of  dressed  lambs  are  known  as  "spring  lambs" 
from  June  until  December;  after  August,  however,  they  are  fre- 
quently quoted  simply  as  lambs.  Frozen  spring  lambs  are  sold 
regularly,  tho  in  relatively  small  numbers,  during  the  winter  and 
spring.  The  terms,  "yearling  lambs"  and  "fall  lambs"  are  fre- 
quently used  during  the  spring  and  summer  with  reference  to  lambs 
approaching  yearlings  in  age  but  similar  to  spring  lambs  in  size 
and  shape.  These  terms,  however,  are  used  somewhat  loosely  by 
the  trade  and  do  not  denote  distinct  subclasses. 

The  grades  of  lambs  are  choice,  good,  medium,  common  and 
culls.  The  grade  is  determined  more  largely  by  quality  and  weight 
and  less  by  form  and  covering  than  is  the  case  with  carcass  mut- 
ton. Quality  of  flesh  and  bone  is  especially  important  for  the  rea- 
sons stated  in  describing  veal.  Weight  is  a  matter  of  much  sig- 
nificance in  selecting  lambs  and  a  decided  preference  is  shown  for 
weights  well  below  those  of  yearlings  because  the  latter  are  to 
some  extent  sold  as  heavy  lambs.  Dressed  lambs  seldom  exceed 
50  pounds  in  weight  but  no  distinct  line  can  be  drawn  between  the 
two  classes  either  in  weight  or  degree  of  maturity.  The  minimum 
weight  of  lambs  is  about  15  pounds  and  few  carcasses  weigh  less 
than  20  pounds.  Form  and  covering  are  of  most  importance  in 
the  choice  and  good  grades.  Plump  legs,  full,  wide  backs  and 
loins  and  thick  flanks  and  breasts  are  the  principal  points  by  which 
form  is  judged.  In  covering,  lambs  are  not  as  fully  developed  as 
yearlings.  The  back  and  loin  should  be  well  covered  but  much 
less  fat  is  found  especially  on  the  legs  and  ribs  than  in  other 
classes  of  dressed  sheep.  Medium  and  common  lambs  are,  as  a 
rule,  caulrdressed ;  the  choice  grade  is  principally  round-dressed 
and  good  lambs  either  caul  or  round.  All  grades  of  caul  and 
round  lambs  are  quoted  both  pluck  in  and  pluck  out. 

Choice  lambs  are  short,  compact  and  thick,  with  flesh  of  the 
lightest  color  and  finest  grain,  small  bones,  and  an  even  cover- 
ing of  white  fat.  Shape,  covering  and  general  appearance  of 
carcass  are  especially  important  in  choice  lambs  because  they  are 
generally  round-dressed.  Short,  broad,  plump  legs  and  full,  thick 
backs  and  loins  contribute  most  to  the  desired  form  since  these 
are  the  high  priced  cuts  of  the  carcass.  Lambs  which  are  slightly 
too  long  and  rangy  even  tho  choice  in  quality  and  finish  are 
barred  from  this  grade  because  they  resemble  yearlings  in  appear- 
ance. Too  thick  a  covering  of  fat  is  seldom  found  in  the  lamb  class. 
The  weights  of  choice  lambs  are  35  to  50  pounds  and  the  bulk 
range  between  40  and  45  pounds.  Chops  and  legs  cut  from  lambs 
heavier  than  45  pounds  are  too  large  to  suit  the  average  trade 


/p/o]  MARKET  CLASSES  AND  GRADES  OF  MEAT  237 

and  such  lambs  are  also  in  closer  competition  with  yearlings,  hence 
they  seldom  grade  higher  than  good.  The  supply  of  choice  lambs 
is  largest  during  the  summer  and  fall  months.  See  Figs.  45,  46. 

Good  lambs  include  a  wider  range  of  quality  and  weight  than 
choice  lambs  and  differ  from  the  latter  chiefly  in  the  matter  of 
covering.  Many  carcasses  sold  as  good  lambs  are  on  the  border 
between  lambs  and  yearlings.  The  weights  of  this  grade  of  lambs 
range  from  35  to  50  pounds.  The  heavier  selections  weighing 
45  to  50  pounds  are  round-dressed  and  35  to  45  pound  lambs 
are  principally  caul-dressed.  The  latter  are  largely  used  in  the 
eastern  shipping  trade.  See  Figs.  45,  46. 

Medium  lambs  are  those  which  are  either  too  rangy  in  form, 
coarse  and  plain  in  quality  or  too  deficient  in  covering  to  bring  the 
price  of  a  good  lamb.  Many  of  this  grade  are  too  heavy  in  "bar- 
rel" and  others  are  extremely  wasty  in  kidneyrfat.  The  grade 
also  includes  some  bucky  lambs  of  good  quality  and  covering 
which  are  chiefly  found  in  the  heavy  weights  up  to  50  pounds. 
The  bulk  of  the  medium  lambs  average  30  to  40  pounds  and  are 
caul-dressed.  See  Figs.  45,  46. 

Common  lambs  are  too  deficient  in  flesh  and  in  covering  of 
fat  to  be  suitable  for  chops  or  legs  of  lamb  altho  they  are  used 
on  the  block  in  the  cheaper  classes  of  trade.  They  often  possess 
some  outside  covering  but  it  is  confined  entirely  to  the  back  and 
loin.  This  grade  also  contains  a  few  bucky  lambs  weighing  as 
high  as  45  to  50  pounds  but  the  -bulk  of  the  grade  weigh  25  to 
30  pounds  and  a  few  as  low  as  20  pounds.  See  Figs.  45,  46. 

Cull  lambs  are  of  quality  similar  to  that  of  canner  ewes,  ex- 
cepting that  the  flesh  is  less  dark  colored  and  is  usually  some- 
what more  abundant  in  proportion  to  the  bone.  They  are  entirely 
devoid  of  fat  and  are  of  the  most  inferior  form  and  quality. 
Lambs  of  this  grade  are  taken  by  retail  markets  located  in  poor 
city  districts  and  sold  for  stewing  purposes.  The  weights  are 
15  to  25  pounds,  with  the  bulk  included  between  20  to  25  pounds. 

"GENUINE"  SPRING  LAMBS 

The  term  genuine  is  used  during  April,  May  and  June  to  differ- 
entiate early  spring  lambs  from  other  lambs  which  resemble 
"springers"  in  quality  and  weight,  such  as  frozen  lambs  stored 
since  the  previous  summer,  and  light  "yearling  lambs".  It  is  grad- 
ually dropped  after  the  arrival  of  the  regular  supply  of  spring 
lambs  in  May  and  June. 

For  several  weeks  after  the  beginning  of  the  season  (about 
April  i,)  "genuines"  are  dressed  "pelt  on",  the  head  not  being  re- 
moved, brisket'  not  split  and  the  carcass  opened  only  sufficiently  to 
remove  the  offal  (Fig.  47).  The  earliest  offerings  are  known  as 


238 


BULLETIN  No.   147 


[July, 


"*wWf 


FIG.  46a.     SPRING  LAMBS. 


Choice 


Good. 


Easter  lambs,  a  large  proportion  of  which  are  consumed  by  the  lo- 
cal Jewish  and  Greek  population,  who  use  them  in  connection  with 
religious  customs.  For  this  trade,  dressed  lambs  must  show  the 
effects  of  shelter,  care  and  milk  feeding,  indications  of  which  are 
thick,  white  flesh  on  the  breast,  flanks  and  legs,  a  good  covering 
of  fat  on  the  kidneys  and  lining  the  crotch,  fine  shanks,  red  ribs 
and  soft,  white  hench-bone.  The  carcass  weight  varies  from  30  to 
50  pounds,  gross;  the  general  run  weigh  35  to  45  pounds  and 
the  most  desirable  weights  are  35  to  40  pounds.  Carcasses  weigh- 
ing less  than  30  pounds  are  discriminated  against,  because  their 
net  round-dressed  weight  is  less  than  20  pounds,  and  quarters 
lighter  than  5  pounds  are  too  small  to  suit  the  retail  trade.  The 
variation  in  this  class  of  lambs  is  not  sufficient  to  separate  them 
into  distinct  grades,  altho  prices  vary  somewhat  according  to 
weight  and  quality. 


MARKET  CLASSES  AND  GRADES  OF  MEAT 


239 


FIG.  46b.     SPRING  L/AMBS. 


Medium. 


Common. 


After  May  i  to  15  "genuines"  are  round-  and  caul-dressed, 
except  special  orders  of  pelt  lambs.  As  the  season  advances  more 
variation  in  quality  and  weight  is  found,  and  by  July  i,  this  class 
is  identical  with  the  various  grades  of  spring  lambs  described 
above.  Average  weights  of  caul-  and  round-dressed  "genuines" 
are  20  to  35  pounds.  They  are  usually  dressed  with  the  wool  or 
"stockings"  on  hind  shanks,  and  plucks  in. 

"Genuine"  spring  lambs  are  sold  both  per  carcass  and  per 
pound  in  wholesale  markets,  early  pelt-dressed  lambs  being  most 
frequently  quoted  by  the  carcass.  The  principal  demand  for  this 
class  of  lambs  is  among  hotels,  restaurants  and  clubs  of  the  high- 
est class.  In  retail  markets  they  are  generally  sold  by  the  quarter, 
and  when  cut  into  chops  are  sold  by  the  cut  rather  than  by  the 


240 


BULLETIN  No.   147 


[July, 


FIG.  47.     "GENUINE"  SPRING  L,AMBS. 

pound.  For  this  reason  medium-  and  light-weight  "genuines"  fre- 
quently sell  as  high  per  carcass  as  heavy  ones  of  the  same  quality. 
The  supply  of  this  class  of  lambs  handled  at  Chicago  is  principally 
shipped  from  southern  markets,  especially  Louisville  and  St. 
Louis.  The  number  is  comparatively  limited  and  forms  l:ut  a 
small  percent  of  the  supply  of  lambs  marketed  annually. 

During  July  and  August  large  numbers  of  choice,  light  spring 
lambs  which  resemble  "genuines"  are  dressed  "pelt  on"  and  frozen 
to  be  held  for  the  early  lamb  trade  of  the  following  winter  and 
spring.  They  sell  at  about  25  percent  below  the  price  of  "genuine 
springers". 

WINTER  LAMBS 

Winter  ("hothouse"  or  "incubator")  lambs  are  light,  young 
lambs  which  precede  genuine  spring  lambs  in  the  market  by  two  or 
three  months,  being  in  season  from  January  until  May  and  a  small 
number  being  available  for  Christmas  trade.  They  are  similar  to 


MARKET  CLASSES  AND  GRADES  OF  MEAT 


241 


FIG.  48.    WINTER  L,AMBS. 

early  spring  lambs  but  are  of  lighter  average  weights  and  show 
better  development  in  proportion  to  their  age.  They  consist  prin- 
cipally of  native  country-dressed  lambs,  six  or  seven  weeks  old, 
shipped  from  Wisconsin,  Michigan  and  Illinois.  They  weigh  20  to 
45  pounds  and  the  bulk,  30  to  40  pounds,  gross.  They  are  dressed 
"pelt  on"  and  "pluck  in",  with  two  back-sets  and  the  caul  placed 
over  the  belly.  They  are  principally  shipped  to  produce  commission 
firms  or  direct  to  hotels,  restaurants  and  clubs  instead  of  passing 
thru  the  large  wholesale  markets.  Being  marketed  in  advance  of 
the  spring  lamb  season  they  sell  at  high  prices  and  are  taken  by 
the  most  select  trade.  The  few  that  are  sold  in  retail  markets  are 
sold  by  the  quarter  and  not  by  the  pound.  Frozen  lambs  put  in 
storage  at  different  seasons  and  in  various  sections  of  the  country 
are  also  substituted  for  winter  lambs,  and  sell  at  the  same  relative 

-7 


242  BULLETIN   No.    147  [July, 

discount  as  frozen  spring  lambs.     Late  winter  lambs  and  early 
"genuines"  are  practically  identical  classes.     See  Fig.  48. 

KOSHER  SHEEP  AND  LAMBS 

Like  calves  and  cattle,  sheep  and  lambs  sold  to  Jewish  patrons 
are  slaughtered,  inspected  and  dressed  under  prescribed  regulations 
(p.  1 88).  The  rack  (12  ribs)  only  is  used  by  this  trade.  Heavy 
mutton  is  not  in  demand  in  Jewish  markets,  and  medium  to 
choice  lambs  are  the  grades  generally  sold  for  this  purpose.  (See 
Easter  lambs,  p.  238). 

SHIPPING  MUTTON  AND  LAMB 

The  Chicago  shipping  trade  in  dressed  sheep  and  lambs  goes 
principally  to  cities  in  the  eastern  seaboard  states.  The  largest 
percent  of  this  trade  consists  of  lambs.  The  mutton  that  is  shipped 
consists  of  choice,  good,  and  medium  wethers,  ewes,  and  yearlings. 
New  York,  Philadelphia  and  Boston  are  the  leading  markets  to 
which  heavy  mutton  is  sent  from  Chicago. 

Shipping  lambs  are  dressed  and  graded  according  to  the  de- 
mands and  customs  of  the  various  markets  to  which  they  are  sent. 
The  principal  styles  of  shipping  lambs  recognized  by  the  trade  are 
as  follows: 

Regular,  custom  or  Washington  shipping  lamb.  Plain  caul- 
dressed,  pluck  out.  Medium  and  good  grades,  35  to  40  pounds 
average.  (Shipped  to  Washington  and  other  cities  and  used  lo- 
cally). See  Fig.  46a. 

New  York  lamb.  Pluck  in,  caul  wrapped  about  legs  in  two 
pieces  with  heavy  end  upward,  balance  of  caul  placed  from  legs  to 
kidneys.  Medium  and  good  grades,  35  to  40  pounds. 

Neiv  York  R.  D.  lamb.  Round-dressed,  pluck  in.  Choice  lambs, 
40  to  45  pounds. 

Boston  or  B.  B.  (break-back)  lamb.  Ribs  cracked  and  turned 
back,  back  broken,  one  straight  back-set,  shanks  not  folded,  pluck 
out.  Choice  lambs,  40  pounds  average.  See  Fig.  49.  (Boston- 
style  sheep  are  plaii\-dressed,  but  with  the  ribs  cracked  and  turned 
back,  and  a  spread-stick  inside  at  the  flanks.  See  Fig.  49.) 

Philadelphia  lamb.  Pluck  dropped  thru  caul,  shanks  folded. 
Medium  to  good  grades,  35  to  40  pounds.  See  Fig.  49. 

Baltimore  lamb.  Caul  placed  with  heavy  end  upward,  one  back- 
set, pluck  out.  Medium  lambs,  30  to  35  pounds. 

Providence  lamb  (E.  T.  or  Newport).  Ribs  cracked  and 
turned  back,  2  back  sets,  caul  placed  about  fore  quarters  and  around 
the  back,  pluck  out.  Choice  lambs,  40  to  45  pounds.  See  Fig.  50. 

Connecticut   lamb    (or   New   Haven).       Round-dressed   lamb, 


MARKET  CLASSES  AND  GRADES  OF  MEAT 


243 


244 


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O 

o 


jp/o]  MARKET  CLASSES  AND  GRADES  OF  MEAT  245 

caul  wrapped  around  hind  legs  and  over  belly  with  heavy  end  up- 
ward.    Good  lambs,  35  to  40  pounds.     See  Fig.  50. 

Dressed  sheep  and  lambs  are  not  regularly  exported  from  this 
country. 

GOATS 

Dressed  goats  are  occasionally  sold  in  connection  with  mutton 
and  lambs  and  are  frequently  substituted  for  them,  especially  in  re- 
tail markets.  They  are  comparable  in  form,  quality  and  finish 
with  the  lowest  grades  of  Western  sheep.  Long  shanks,  coarse, 
dark  flesh,  long  neck  and  thin  caul,  however,  render  them  quite 
easily  distinguished  from  sheep  carcasses.  They  are  not  quoted  in 
distinct  grades.  See  Fig.  50. 

MUTTON  CUTS 

About  one-half  the  supply  of  dressed  wethers,  ewes  and  year- 
lings in  large  wholesale  markets  is  sold  as  mutton  cuts,  consisting 
principally  of  saddles  and  racks  as  illustrated  in  Fig.  51.  The  car- 
cass is  usually  divided  between  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  ribs, 
yielding  about  49  percent  saddle  and  51  percent  rack.  Subdivisions 
of  the  saddle  and  rack  are  quoted  as  wholesale  cuts  to  some  extent. 
The  cuts  derived  from  the  saddle  are  the  leg  and  loin,  separated 
at  the  hip-bone  and  including  two-thirds  and  one-third,  respect- 
ively, of  the  weight  of  the  saddle.  The  rack  is  made  into  a  stew 
and  a  short  rack  by  separating1  ten  ribs  (the  third  to  twelfth  inclu- 
sive) from  the  shoulder  and  breast  as  shown  in  the  illustration. 
The  short  rack  includes  two-fifths  and  the  stew  three-fifths  the 
weight  of  the  rack.  The  short  rack  has  the  highest  market  value 
per  pound  of  the  wholesale  cuts,  and  the  legs,  loin  and  stew  are 
valued  in  the  order  named.  Legs  of  mutton  and  lamb  were  form- 
erly quoted  and  sold  at  higher  prices  than  the  ribs,  but  retail  de- 
mand for  the  latter  has  during  the  last  ten  or  fifteen  years  gradu- 
ally overtaken  and  exceeded  the  demand  for  legs. 

Grading  Mutton  Cuts 

The  grades  of  mutton  cuts  are  choice,  good,  medium  and 
common.  Cuts  of  these  grades  correspond  in  shape,  quality,  cov- 
•ering  and  relative  weight  to  the  same  grades  of  carcass  mutton; 
and  the  descriptions  of  the  latter  will  serve  to  indicate  the  more 
important  differences  that  exist  between  the  various  grades  of 
saddles  and  racks.  The  principles  governing  the  grading  of 
beef  cuts  (pp.  190  to  194)  also  apply  in  the  main  to  the  wholesale 
cuts  of  mutton,  and  should  be  studied  in  this  connection.  Thick- 
ness and  quality  of  flesh  and  depth  of  covering  are  especially  im- 
portant, and  the  degree  of  each  is  readily  determined  by  examining 


246 


BULLETIN  No.   147 


[July, 


FIG.  51.     MUTTON  AND  LAMB  CUTS. 


i,  2. 

3,  4,  5. 

1,  2,  3. 

2,  3,  4,  5. 


Saddle 
Rack 

Long  saddle 
Body 


1. 
2. 

3. 

2,  3. 


Leg- 
L,oin 

Short  rack 
Back 


4.  Breast 

5.  Chuck 
4,  5.    Stew 


zp/o]  MARKET  CLASSES  AND  GRADES  OF  MEAT  247 

the  "eye  of  mutton''  (the  lean  flesh  covering  the  ribs  and  adjacent 
to  the  back-bone).  It  should  be  deep  and  well-rounded  rather  than 
flat.  The  color  of  lean  varies  from  a  dull  brick  red  to  dark  red, 
the  former  being  preferable.  Fine  fibre  or  grain,  smooth,  velvety 
surface  and  firm  consistency  of  flesh  are  characteristics  of  choice 
mutton  cuts.  Marbling,  or  mixture  of  fat  within  the  lean,  is  less 
developed  and  of  less  importance  in  mutton  than  in  beef  cuts. 

SADDLES 

Choice,  good,  medium  and  common  saddles  are  illustrated  in 
Fig.  52.  It  is  seen  that  in  shape,  thickness  and  proportion  of 
fat  to  lean  the  cuts  are  similar  to  the  corresponding  grades  of  car- 
cass sheep.  About  one-fourth  inch  of  fat  over  the  loin  is  consid- 
ered most  desirable  for  choice  saddles  of  medium  weight.  Since 
the  legs  make  up  two-thirds  the  weight  of  a  saddle  and  sell  at  about 
ono-sixth  higher  price  per  pound,  the  importance  of  that  portion 
of  the  saddle  is  apparent.  Aside  from  thickness  and  shape  of  leg 
and  loin,  saddles  may  grade  low  by  reason  of  deficiency  in  general 
quality,  as  coarse  bone  or  soft,  uneven  covering.  The  proportion 
of  kidney-fat,  its  color  and  brittleness  are  also  important  factors. 
It  is  customary  in  most  markets  to  quote  mutton  saddles  by  classes, 
as  wether,  ewe  and  yearling  saddles,  these  being  differentiated  as 
explained  in  connection  with  those  classes  of  carcass  mutton. 
Weights  of  saddles  commonly  handled  are  20  to  50  pounds,  and 
the  majority  average  20  to  30  pounds.  Choice  and  good  saddles 
are,  on  the  whole,  somewhat  heavier  than  medium  and  common 
grades. 

Only  a  small  percentage  of  saddles  are  cut  up  in  wholesale  mar- 
kets. A  "long  saddle"  consists  of  a  regular  saddle  and  short  rack 
in  one  piece ;  in  other  words,  it  is  the  portion  of  a  carcass  that  re- 
mains when  a  stew  or  chuck  is  cut  from  it.  Legs  and  loins  are  cut 
principally  from  good  and  choice  saddles. 

RACKS 

Regular  or  "market"  racks  are  graded  choice,  good,  medium 
and  common  (Fig.  52).  Thickness  and  quality  of  flesh,  proper 
thickness  of  covering  on  the  back  and  ribs,  and  absence  of  coarse- 
ness are  essential  points  in  grading  racks.  The  "eye  of  mutton" 
is  of  the  same  significance  as  in  the  case  of  saddles.  The  rib  cut, 
or  short  rack,  tho  only  two-fifths  the  weight  of  the  rack,  repre- 
sents about  two-thirds  of  its  value  and  must  be  considered  accord- 
ingly in  grading.  Quality  and  proportion  of  bone  are  indicated 
by  the  ribs  and  shanks,  as  in  carcass  mutton.  The  shape  of  neck 
indicates  whether  the  rack  is  from  a  wether,  ewe  or  buck.  The 
range  of  weights  is  the  same  as  that  of  saddles,  viz.,  20  to  50 
pounds,  with  the  bulk  from  20  to  30  pounds. 


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/p/o]  MARKET  CLASSES  AND  GRADES  OF  MEAT  249 

Short  or  "hotel"  racks,  or  ribs,  are  made  from  medium  to 
choice  racks  and  graded  similarly  to  them.  They  are  cut  8  to  12 
ribs  long  in  various  markets  and  in  some  cases  are  made  "shoulder 
on,"  but  usually  contain  only  9  or  10  ribs.  They  are  quoted  both 
"blade  in,"  or  regular,  and  "blade  out"  or  "shoulder  raised",  a 
premium  of  one  cent  per  pound  being  charged  for  the  latter.  As 
explained  in  describing  beef  ribs,  the  shoulder  blade  is  a  valuable 
indication  of  the  age  of  the  carcass  and  quality  of  the  bone,  being 
a  white  soft  cartilage  in  young,  well-fed  sheep  and  gradually  chang- 
ing to  bone  according  to  the  age  and  development  of  the  animal. 
The  high  value  of  the  short  rack  compared  with  other  parts  of  the 
carcass  is  due  to  the  demand  for  rib  chops,  which  exceeds  that 
for  any  other  cut  of  mutton.  Short  racks  are  largely  used  by 
hotels,  restaurants,  dining  cars,  etc.,  for  "French"  chops,  which 
consist  of  a  rib  chop  with  the  end  of  the  rib  trimmed  clean  of  fle=h 
and  fat,  leaving  only  the  "eye  of  mutton"  with  its  covering  and 
bone. 

A  mutton  stew  (chuck,  wing,  slug  or  rattle)  is  the  shoulder, 
breast  and  shank  in  one  piece,  including  nearly  one-third  of  the 
carcass  weight  and  two-fifths  of  the  rack.  The  more  important 
factors  in  determining  their  grade  are  thickness,  grain  and  color 
of  flesh  and  quality  of  bone  indicated  by  the  ribs,  shanks  and  shoul- 
der blades.  This  is  the  cheapest  cut  of  the  carcass,  frequently  sell- 
ing at  less  than  one-third  the  price  of  short  racks  and  one-half 
that  of  legs  of  the  same  grade. 

Fore  quarters  or  "fores"  are  sometimes  made  from  market 
racks  by  splitting  them  thru  the  back -bone.  They  are  graded  in 
the  same  manner  as  racks. 

BACKS 

Backs  or  "long  racks"  consist  of  a  loin  and  short  rack  cut  in 
one  piece.  They  can  be  cut  entirely  into  loin  and  rib  chops, 
hence  are  well  adapted  to  the  use  of  restaurants,  dining-cars,  steam- 
boats and  high-class  city  retail  markets.  They  are  made  chiefly 
from  good  and  choice  sheep.  When  cut  in  this  style,  mutton  car- 
casses yield  about  one-third  each  of  back,  legs  and  stew. 

A  mutton  body  consists  of  a  market  rack  and  loin  in  one  piece ; 
in  other  words,  the  carcass  with  legs  cut  off.  Sheep  are  not  ex- 
tensively cut  in  this  fashion  in  wholesale  markets. 

LAMB  CUTS 

Lambs  are  more  largely  sold  in  the  carcass  than  sheep,  owing 
both  to  their  smaller  size  and  to  the  greater  relative  demand  for  the 
cheaper  cuts  of  lamb  than  of  mutton.  It  is  estimated  that  one- 
fourth  to  one-third  of  the  wholesale  lamb  trade  consists  of  cuts. 


250 


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/9/o]  MARKET  CLASSES  AND  GRADES  OF  MEAT  251 

The  methods  of  cutting  and  proportions  of  the  various  cuts  are 
identical  with  those  of  mutton.  Lamb  saddles  and  racks,  however, 
are  still  less  commonly  cut  up  than  those  of  mutton. 

The  grading  of  lamb  cuts  is  also  similar  in  general  to  that  of 
mutton  cuts.  About  one-eighth  inch  of  fat  over  the  loin  and  ribs 
is  desired  in  choice  lambs,  and  a  marked  variation  in  either  direc- 
tion from  this  amount  throws  the  cut  into  one  of  the  lower  grades 
according  to  the  degree  of  excess  or  deficiency.  The  color  of  flesh 
in  cuts  of  lamb  is  a  lighter  or  more  pinkish  red  than  in  mutton. 
The  depth,  grain  and  firmness  of  flesh  and  quality  of  bone  are 
points  of  prime  importance.  As  in  mutton  cuts  the  short  rack  has 
the  highest  market  value,  followed  by  the  legs,  loin  and  stew. 

SADDLES. 

The  four  standard  grades  of  lamb  saddles  are  illustrated  in 
Fig.  53.  The  leg  is  the  most  valuable  portion  of  the  lamb  saddle, 
representing  about  three-fourths  of  its  total  market  value,  conse- 
quently its  fullness  and  covering  are  of  great  importance  in  de- 
termining the  grade  of  a  saddle.  Kidneys  of  medium  size,  white 
and  brittle,  are  required  in  choice  saddles,  together  with  the  proper 
degree  of  finish  as  indicated  by  covering  over  loin  and  rump  and 
the  cod  fat.  Saddles  are  cut  both  from  round-  and  caul-dressed 
lambs  and  principally  from  good  to  choice  grades.  Caul  saddles 
are  quoted  below  the  price  of  round  saddles  of  the  same  grade, 
and  as  a  rule  are  made  from  a  lower  grade  of  lambs.  Lamb  sad- 
dles average  15  to  25  pounds  and  the  bulk  18  to  22  pounds. 

Lamb  legs  are  also  sold  to  some  extent.  They  are  taken  prin- 
cipally from  carcasses  that  are  cut  into  legs,  backs  and  stews,  or 
legs  and  bodies.  They  are  chiefly  of  good  and  choice  grades  and 
average  10  to  16  pounds  per  pair.  A  few  good  and  choice  loins 
are  sold  in  most  markets,  but  the  proportion  of  saddles  cut  into  legs 
and  loins  is  much  smaller  than  is  true  of  mutton. 

RACKS 

Racks  are  graded  choice,  good,  medium  and  common  as  illus- 
trated in  Fig.  53.  Thickness  and  quality  of  flesh,  especially  over 
the  ribs,  depth  and  evenness  of  fat,  and  quality  of  bone  as  in- 
dicated by  the  ribs  and  shanks  are  the  more  important  points  con- 
sidered. Like  mutton  racks,  three-fourths  of  their  value  is  con- 
tained in  the  short  rack  or  rib  cut,  which  yields  the  kind  of  chops 
that  are  most  in  demand. 

Hotel  racks  and  stews  are  made  from  market  racks  in  the  same 
manner  as  the  corresponding  cuts  of  mutton.  They  are  graded 
as  explained  under  mutton  cuts,  but  a  much  smaller  proportion  of 
lamb  than  of  mutton  racks  is  thus  handled.  Fore  quarters  are 
also  quoted  but  a  still  smaller  proportion  of  "fores"  than  of  other 
rack  cuts  is  made. 


252  BULLETIN  No.   147  [July, 

BACKS 

Backs  or  "long  racks"  of  lamb,  including  the  loin  and  short 
rack,  are  also  made  as  in  mutton.  They  may  be  made  from  any 
grade  of  lamb  carcasses  but  are  cut  principally  from  the  better 
grades.  Lamb  bodies,  or  carcasses  from  which  the  legs  have  been 
cut,  are  quoted  but  relatively  few  are  sold. 

PORK 

Hog  products  may  be  described  under  three  heads :  ( I )  Dressed 
Hogs,  (2)  Pork  Cuts  and  (3)  Lard.  As  a  rule,  not  more  than 
one  or  two  percent  of  the  number  of  hogs  slaughtered  in  large 
packing  houses  are  sold  as  whole  carcasses.  Approximately  three- 
fourths  of  the  trade  in  hog  products  consists  of  various  cured 
meats  and  fresh  cuts,  the  remainder  consisting  principally  of  lard 
and  a  small  percentage  of  sausage  and  canned  meats.  Further, 
fresh  pork  is  of  much  less  importance,  relatively,  than  fresh  beef 
or  mutton,  only  about  one-fifth  of  the  domestic  trade  and  five 
percent  of  the  export  trade  in  pork  products  (other  than  lard) 
consisting  of  fresh  meat.  Thus  the  classification  of  pork  consists 
largely  of  cured  and  manufactured  products,  the  number  and  vari- 
ety of  which  renders  the  outline  of  this  subject  quite  complex. 

DRESSED  HOGS 

The  classification  of  hog  carcasses  is  based  on  the  uses  to  which 
they  are  adapted,  or  the  products  into  which  they  can  be  con- 
verted. The  classes  generally  recognized  and  average  weights 
included  in  each  are  as  follows : 

CARCASS   WEIGHTS 

Smooth  Heavy  or  Heavy  Loin  Hogs 240  to  400  Ib. 

Butcher   or  Light  Loin   Hogs 160  to  240  Ib. 

Packing  Hogs    •  • 100  to  400  Ib. 

Bacon  or  Marked  Hogs    90  to  170  Ib. 

Shippers    •  • 100  to  200  Ib. 

Pigs    •  • 20  to  loo  Ib. 

Different  styles  of  dressing  are  characteristic  of  the  different 
classes  of  carcasses  except  heavy  and  light  loin  hogs,  and  ship- 
pers and  pigs.  Dressed  hogs  of  all  classes  are  cut  open  along  the 
underline  and  thru  the  aitch-bone  and  brisket,  but  the  method  of 
splitting  and  trimming  varies  with  the  class,  as  follows : 

Loin  hogs  are  split  down  thru  the  centre  of  the  back-bone 
("loin-split"  or  "centre-split")  in  order  that  pork  loins  may  be 
cut  from  the  sides.  They  are  dressed  "packer  style",  i.  e.,  head 
off*  leaf  out  and  hams  faced. f  See  Fig.  54. 

*The  jowls  or  cheeks  are  left  as  part  of  the  carcass. 

fFacing  consists  in  trimming  a  strip  of  fat  from  around  the  face  of  the 
ham,  so  as  to  expose  a  larger  lean  surface. 


/p/o]  MARKET  CLASSES  AND  GRADES  OF  MEAT  253 

Packing  hogs  are  usually  split  like  loin  hogs,  but  are  some- 
times split  on  one  side  of  the  back-bone,  making  a  "hard"  and 
"soft"  side.  In  either  case  they  are  dressed  with  head  off,  leaf 
out  and  hams  faced. 

Bacon  hogs  are  usually  cut  ("marked")  with  a  knife  on  each 
side  of  the  back-bone,  then  split  on  one  side  and  the  back-bone 
taken  out,  making  sides  suitable  for  English  bacon  cuts.  The 
head  is  taken  off  and  leaf  out,  and  the  hams  are  either  faced  or 
not,  according  as  they  are  intended  for  short-cut  or  long-cut 
hams.  See  Figs.  58,  59. 

Shippers  and  pigs  are  dressed  "shipper  style",  i.e.,  with  head 
on,  leaf  in,  back-bone  not  split  and  hams  not  faced.  See  Fig.  60. 

Only  shippers  and  pigs  are  extensively  sold  as  dressed  hogs. 
The  other  classes  are  cut  up  directly  after  being  chilled,  except 
relatively  small  numbers  of  butcher  and  packing  hogs  that  are 
handled  by  jobbers  or  sold  to  retail  dealers  for  fresh  use. 

Grading  Dressed  Hogs 

The  grades  of  hog  carcasses  are  much  less  numerous  and  com- 
plex than  those  of  carcass  beef  or  mutton,  owing  to  the 
greater  variation  in  the  latter  with  respect  to  age  and  general  de- 
velopment. Standard  grades  are  recognized  only  in  the  bacon 
and  packing  hog  classes.  In  a  broad  sense,  however,  the  six 
gerreral  classes  may  be  regarded  also  as  grades,  since  they  are  dif- 
ferentiated largely -by  shape,  finish,  quality  and  weight  as  well  as 
by  styles  of  dressing. 

The  shape  desired  in  loin  and  packing  hogs  is  great  width  of 
side  and  back  in  proportion  to  length  of  body,  straight,  even  lines 
and  well-filled  hams  and  shoulders.  In  bacon  hogs,  length  of 
side  is  more  important,  with  less  width  and  thickness  of  back  in 
proportion  to  that  of  the  side  than  in  the  grades  of  fat  hogs. 

Finish  is  indicated  by  the  depth  and  evenness  of  fat  covering 
the  carcass,  especially  along  the  back  and  over  the  sides;  also  by 
the  amount  and  quality  of  leaf  fat.*  It  is  essential  that  the  fat  be 
white  and  firm.  The  depth  of  covering  and  proportion  of  leaf  fat 
desired  are  described  and  illustrated  in  connection  with  the  various 
classes. 

Quality  implies  firm,  bright,  smooth-grained  flesh  and  solid, 
white  fat  evenly  distributed  over  the  carcass;  smooth,  thin,  mel- 
low skin  free  from  wrinkles,  blotches  or  bruises ;  moderately 
small,  fine  shanks  and  head;  soft,  red  chine-bones,  back-bone  and 
brisket ;  and  an  absence  of  coarseness  in  general.  Points  of 
special  importance  in  selecting  dressed  hogs  are  the  development 
and  quality  of  loins  and  sides,  and  the  size,  shape,  firmness  and 

*The  leaf  is  the  internal  fat  of  the  carcass.  It  includes  the  kidney  fat  and 
extends  down  to  the  flanks  and  skirt  (diaphragm). 


254 


BULLETIN  No.   147 


[July, 


covering  of  the  hams.  Coarse  or  extremely  large  shoulders,  neck 
and  jowls,  are  indications  of  stagginess,  and  "seedy"*  sows  are 
classified  as  packing  hogs  because  of  their  coarse  quality. 

The  importance  of  weight  in  grading  dressed  hogs  varies 
according  to  the  class,  as  will  be  observed  in  the  weights  given  on 
page  252  and  in  the  following  descriptions.  In  general,  weight 
is  a  very  important  factor,  and  in  the  case  of  loin  hogs  it  deter- 
mines not  only  the  grade  but  also  the  class  to  which  a  carcass 
belongs. 

SMOOTH  HEAVY  OR  HEAVY  LOIN  HOGS 

These  are  prime  smooth  hogs,  either  barrows  or  good,  clear 
(not  seedy)  sows,  weighing  240  to  400  pounds,  with  from  four 
to  six  inches  of  fat  on  the  back;  thick,  wide,  level  sides  without 
depressions  in  the  back;  heavy  hams,  filled  out  even  with  sides, 
full  at  the  rump  and  well  rounded  down  toward  hocks,  without 


FIG.  54.     SMOOTH  HEAVY  HOG. 

Inside.  Outside. 


This  terra  refers  to  the  nipples  or  teats  of  sows  that  have  borne  pigs  or 
reached  an  advanced  stage  of  pregnancy.     See  Fig.  56. 


MARKET  CLASSES  AND  GRADES  OF  MEAT 


255 


wrinkles  or  flabbiness;  smooth  shoulders;  short,  full  neck;  and 
full  but  not  coarse  jowls.  The  skin  must  not  be  thick,  hard,  nor 
wrinkled.  The  flesh  and  fat  must  be  deep,  firm  and  even,  the 
flesh  brighb-colored,  the  fat  white  and  bones  not  coarse.  As  their 
name  indicates,  such  hogs  are  especially  suitable  for  making 
heavy  loins,  the  remainder  of  the  side  being  made  into  a  heavy 
fat  back  and  dry-salt  belly.  However,  under  certain  market  con- 
ditions they  are  cut  into  the  same  products  as  heavy  packing  hogs. 
The  hams  are  usually  skinned  and  the  shoulders  cut  into  picnics, 
butts  and  plates.  Hogs  of  this  class  are  a  very  small  percent  of 
the  supply.  See  Fig.  54. 

BUTCHER  OR  LIGHT  LOIN  HOGS 

The  term  "butcher"  refers  to  "butcher  shop"  or  retail  family 
trade.  A  large  proportion  of  the  fresh  pork  sold  in  retail  mar- 
kets is  pork  loins,  which  are  cut  into  chops  and  roasts ;  hence 
light  loin  or  "pork  loin"  hogs  are  those  from  which  these  cuts 


FIG.  55.     BUTCHER  HOGS.     A,  HEAVY.     B,  LIGHT. 


256 


BULLETIN  No.  147 


[July, 


can  be  obtained  to  best  advantage.  To  yield  loins  of  the  proper 
size  and  quality,  a  hog  carcass  should  weigh  about  160  to  240 
pounds  and  have  the  same  shape,  smoothness  and  general  quality 
described  above  with  reference  to  heavy  loin  hogs.  Thick,  firm 
flesh,  smooth,  soft  skin  and  solid,  white  fat  are  especially  import- 
ant. The  covering  of  fat  should  be  two  to  four  inches  thick  on 
the  back.  This  class  is  composed  of  barrows  and  smooth,  clear 
sows.  The  weights  most  preferred  for  butcher  hogs  are  200  to 
220  pounds.  They  are  principally  cut  up  by  packers,  the  loins 
being  sold  to  retail  dealers  or  jobbers.  Besides  loins,  fat  backs, 
clear  bellies,  extra  ribs  and  extra  short  clears  are  commonly 
made  from  sides  of  butcher  hogs.  The  hams  are  cut  short  and 
the  shoulders  principally  made  into  picnics,  New  York-cut  shoul- 
ders and  Boston  butts.  In  some  instances,  carcasses  of  this  class 
are  sold  to  retail  markets  for  fresh  trade,  in  which  case  they  are 
dressed  either  "head  on"  or  "head  off"  as  ordered.  See  Fig.  55. 

PACKING  HOGS 

This  class  includes  mixed  hogs  of  all  weights  which  are  too 
coarse  in  quality,  rough  in  shape  or  soft  and  uneven  in  finish  to 


FIG.  56.     PACKING  HOGS  (Sows).     A,  HEAVY.     B,  MEDIUM. 


MARKET  CLASSES  AND  GRADES  OF  MEAT 


257 


be  suitable  primarily  for  fresh  pork  products  or  smoked  meats 
and  are  therefore  principally  packed  in  such  forms  as  barreled 
pork  and  dry-salt  meats.  About  one-half  the  hogs  handled  in 
Chicago  packing  houses  belong  to  this  class. 

Heavy  Packing  Hogs,  also  known  as  Rough  Heavy  or  Mess 
Pork  Hogs,  consist  of  rough  and  seedy  sows,  coarse  barrows, 
boars  and  stags  averaging  240  to  400  pounds.  All  heavy  hogs 
that  are  too  rough  to  be  classed  as  loin  hogs  are  included  in 
this  grade.  Defects  common  to  these  carcasses  are  thick,  rough 
and  wrinkled  skin,  dark-colored  and  coarse-grained  flesh,  soft, 
oily  fat,  large  bones  and  carcass  bruises.  (Figs.  56,  57.)  They 
are  more  largely  cut  into  short  ribs  and  mess  pork,  and  less  into 
loins,  fat  backs  and  bellies  than  Heavy  Loin  Hogs,  and  conse- 
quently are  more  frequently  "marked"  and  side-split  altho  at  times 


FIG.  57.     PACKING  HOG  (BOAR). 

Inside.  Outside. 


258  BULLETIN  No.   147  [July, 

a  large  proportion  of  them  are  loin-split  and  pork  loins  taken  out. 
The  hams  are  sweet  pickled  and  shoulders  made  into  picnics  and 
Boston  butts. 

Medium  Packing  Hogs  are  sows  and  barrows  averaging  200 
to  240  pounds  that  are  inferior  to  butcher  hogs  in  quality;  they 
also  include  a  small  proportion  of  stags  and  boars.  (Fig.  56.) 
The  cuts  made  from  this  grade  are  dry-salt  sides,  mess  pork, 
clear  backs,  dry-salt  and  "English"  bellies,  pork  loins,  short-cut 
hams,  and  New  York  cut  and  picnic  shoulders. 

Light  Packing  Hogs  are  mixed  hogs  of  100  to  200  pounds 
weight  that  are  too  deficient  in  shape,  quality  and  finish  to  be  clas- 
sified as  either  Bacon,  Butcher  or  Shipper  hogs.  This  grade  con- 
sists largely  of  light  sows.  They  are  cut  into  prime  mess  pork, 
short  clear  backs,  clear  bellies,  short-cut  hams,  and  picnics,  New 
York  and  skinned  shoulders. 

BACON  OR  MARKED  HOGS 

Bacon  hogs  are  those  that  are  suitable  primarily  for  sugar- 
cured  breakfast-bacon  bellies  and  "English"  meats.  Since  such 
meats  must  be  comparatively  lean,  firm  and  of  good  quality,  the 
leading  features  of  bacon  hogs  are  long,  deep,  smooth  sides  with 
a  light,  even  covering  of  fat  over  the  entire  carcass  and  especially 
uniform  on  the  back  and  sides.  The  hams  should  be  full  but  lean 
and  the  shoulders  light  and  smooth.  The  flesh  must  be  firm  and 
not  "watery",  the  fat  solid  and  the  carcass  sufficiently  mature 
to  insure  proper  curing.  Hogs  which  fulfil  these  conditions 
weigh  90  to  170  pounds  dressed.  Low  grades  of  bacon  are  made 
from  pigs  as  light  as  60  or  70  oounds,  but  the  most  desirable 
weights  are  120  to  150  pounds.  They  consist  principally  of  bar- 
rows, but  for  most  grades  of  bacon  smooth,  clear  sows  that  re- 
semble barrows  in  general  quality  and  finish  are  used  to  some  ex- 
tent. Only  a  small  percentage  of  the  dressed  hogs  handled  at 
Chicago  are  of  this  class.  The  products  principally  made  from 
them  are  "English"  middles,  backs  and  bellies,  domestic  breakfast- 
bacon  bellies,  long-cut  and  short-cut  hams.  Bacon  hogs  vary 
from  choice  to  common  in  quality,  finish  and  shape,  and  altho  no 
fixed  grades  are  universally  recognized  among  packers,  they  are 
usually  designated  as  choice,  good  and  common,  respectively. 

Choice  bacon  hogs  must  be  evenly  fleshed  and  covered  with  a 
smooth  layer  of  fat  over  the  loin,  shoulders  and  sides.  Firm  flesh, 
solid,  white  fat,  and  a  white,  smooth  skin  are  especially  important 
in  this  grade.  The  depth  of  back-fat  is  from  one  and  one-fourth 
to  two  inches.  It  must  be  evenly  distributed,  however,  not  vary- 
ing more  than  one-fourth  or  three-eighths  of  an  inch  at  different 
points  on  the  back  and  shoulders.  Large  sides  of  even  width  are 


MARKET  CLASSES  AND  GRADES  OF  MEAT 


259 


FIG.  58.     CHOICE  BACON  HOGS. 

also  essential.  This  grade  is  used  for  the  manufacture  of  "Wilt- 
shire" and  "Staffordshire"  sides,  "English"  backs  and  bellies, 
and  fancy  breakfast-bacon  bellies,  also  "Cumberland"  sides  to 
some  extent.  They  weigh  about  120  to  160  pounds,  and  only 
barrows  are  generally  used.  See  Fig.  58. 

Good  bacon  hogs  include  those  that  either  lack  the  prime  fin- 
ish required  of  the  highest  grade  or  are  too  thickly  or  unevenly 
covered  with  fat;  also  those  that  are  slightly  deficient  in  length 
and  depth  of  sides,  or  firmness  and  quality  of  flesh  and  fat.  This 
grade,  therefore,  contains  a  much  larger  variety  of  carcasses  than 
the  choice  grade,  but  they  must  nevertheless  be  reasonably  well 
suited  to  the  manufacture  of  smoked  bacon  and  English  meats. 
The  thickness  of  back-fat  must  not  be  less  than  one  nor  more  than 


260 


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[My, 


FIG.  59.     BACON  HOGS. 


Good. 


Common. 


two  and  one-half  inches.  Average  weights  vary  from  about  no 
to  170  pounds.  "Cumberland",  "Wiltshire"  and  long  clear  sides. 
"English"  bellies  and  domestic  breakfast-bacon  bellies  are  made 
from,  this  grade.  See  Fig.  59. 

Common  bacon  hogs  are  below  the  average  in  finish,  quality 
and  weight.  Tho  a  hog  may  have  the  proper  amount  of  fat,  if 
it  is  unevenly  distributed  over  the  back  and  belly  and  not  well 
mixed  with  the  lean,  the  sides  are  not  adapted  to  making  good 
bacon.  Carcasses  that  are  too  fat  to  grade  as  good  bacon  hogs 
are  classified  as  packers  rather  than  common  bacons.  The  latter 
are  principally  light  unfinished  carcasses,  the  poorest  of  which 
are  so  thin  as  to  be  known  as  "skippy"  or  "skinny"  hogs. 

The  grade  also  includes  some  that  have  sufficient  fat  and 
weight  but  are  soft  and  dark-colored  in  their  flesh  and  fat  and 
coarse  in  general  appearance.  Average  weights  of  this  grade  are 
90  to  no  pounds  but  a  few  range  from  60  to  130  pounds.  Com- 


MARKET  CLASSES  AND  GRADES  OF  MEAT  261 

mon  to  medium  bacon  hogs  weighing  90  to  130  pounds  are  used 
for  long  rib  sides,  and  60  to  no-pound  averages  are  made  into 
Dublin  middles.  The  latter,  tho  of  the  same  weights  as  heavy 
pigs,  are  generally  distinguished  from  them  by  darker  colored 
flesh  and  harder,  whiter  bones.  See  Fig.  59. 

SHIPPERS 

Shippers  are  similar  to  Butcher  Hogs  in  shape  and  quality  but 
are  lighter  in  weight  and  generally  not  as  highly  finished,  having 
only  a  moderate  covering  of  fat  and  a  comparatively  small  amount 
of  leaf  fat.  As  compared  with  Bacon  Hogs  they  are  shorter  and 
thicker-bodied,  have  a  deeper  and  less  even  covering  of  fat,  heav- 
ier jowls  and  show  less  age  in  proportion  to  their  weight  and  gen- 
eral development.  They  average  100  to  160  pounds  and  are 
dressed  "head-on".  (Fig.  60.)  Since  their  chief  use  is  for 
fresh  retail  trade  they  must  be  carefully  selected,  and  carcasses  of 
this  weight  that  show  a  marked  lack  of  quality  such  as  thick, 
rough  skin,  coarse  bones,  dark  color  or  very  uneven  covering  are 
classified  as  light  packing  hogs.  This  is  the  only  class  of  hogs 
that  is  extensively  sold  in  the  whole  carcass.  They  are  shipped  in 
car  lots  to  eastern  points,  especially  New  York  City,  Boston,  Buf- 
falo and  various  New  England  cities,  where  they  are  used  both 
for  fresh  retail  trade  and  for  the  manufacture  of  "home-packed" 
meats. 

The  term  "shipper"  is  also  applied  by  some  packers  to  all  other 
carcasses  that  are  dressed  "shipper  style",  and  they  are  quoted  in 
weights  from  40  to  280  pounds.  In  this  case,  carcasses  heavier 
than  1 60  pounds  are  selected  from  Loin  Hogs,  and  those  lighter 
than  100  pounds  are  the  class  described  below  as  Pigs.  Heavy 
hogs  quoted  in  this  way  are  bought  principally  by  retailers  in 
small  cities  and  towns,  but  the  trade  is  very  limited  and  has  been 
largely  replaced  by  pork  loins.  Shippers  of  all  grades  are  sold 
most  extensively  during  the  winter  months,  when  demand  for 
fresh  pork  is  greatest. 

PIGS 

Pigs  are  carcasses  of  light  young  swine  that  are  compara- 
tively lean  and  light  colored  in  flesh,  with  thin,  soft  skin,  soft  red 
bones,  and  weighing  from  20  to  100  pounds.  They  are  dressed 
"shipper  style"  and  are  often  quoted  together  with  Shipper  Hogs. 
Thin  and  coarse  or  staggy  pigs  are  frequently  termed  "throw- 
outs".  Pigs  are  chiefly  used  for  fresh  trade  in  small  retail  mar- 
kets, where  the  heavier  grades  are  cut  into  chops,  pork  steaks, 
hams  and  other  fresh  cuts,  and  the  smaller  carcasses  are  retailed 
to  certain  laboring  classes  by  whom  they  are  used  for  boiling  pur- 


262 


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I 

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/p/oj  MARKET  CLASSES  AND  GRADES  OF  MEAT  263 

poses.  New  York  is  the  leading  shipping  point  for  80  to  100 
pound  pigs.  The  mining  districts  of  Pennsylvania  take  many 
of  the  lighter  averages,  60  pounds  and  under.  "Export  pigs" 
are  selected  carcasses  of  choice  quality  averaging  80  to  100 
pounds,  dressed  "head  off"  and  wrapped  in  muslin.  See  Fig.  60. 
Roasting  Pigs  are  dressed  suckling  pigs  which  are  fat  and 
smooth,  with  white  skin  and  flesh  indicating  a  well-nourished 
condition.  They  are  country-dressed,  as  a  rule,  with  head  on 
and  the  carcass  opened  only  from  the  crotch  to  the  brisket.  Roast- 
ers are  principally  shipped  like  winter  lambs  direct  to  the  hotels 
and  restaurants  that  use  them.  The  most  desirable  size  is  15  to 
20  pounds  but  pigs  weighing  10  to  30  pounds  are  used. 

PORK  CUTS 

The  various  cuts  made  from  dressed  hogs  may  be  divided  into 
the  following  general  classes :  Plains,  Sides,  Bellies,  Backs,  Loins, 
Shoulders,  Butts  and  Plates  and  Miscellaneous.  See  Fig.  61. 

These  products  are  quoted  and  handled  according  to  the  man- 
ner in  which  they  are  prepared  or  packed  viz.,  Fresh  Pork  Cuts, 
Dry-Salt  and  Bacon  Meats,  Barreled  or  Plain-Pickled  Pork, 
Sweet-Pickled  Meats,  Smoked  Meats,  "English"  Meats  and  Boiled 
Meats.  It  will  be  necessary  to  define  these  terms  before  attempt- 
ing to  describe  the  grades  and  uses  of  the  different  classes  of  cuts. 
Fresh  Pork  Cuts  are  sold  either  chilled  or  frozen.  The  bulk  of 
the  uncured  product  is  disposed  of  within  a  few  days  after  slaugh- 
ter, during  which  time  it  is  chilled  at  temperatures  slightly  above 
the  freezing  point.  Freezing  is  employed  for  the  storage  of  pork 
loins  and  other  fresh  cuts  and  edible  offal  when  supply  exceeds 
demand,  and  in  some  cases  for  keeping  bellies,  hams,  shoulders 
and  other  cuts  intended  for  future  curing.  Frozen  pork,  however, 
is  not  quoted  nor  handled  to  the  same  relative  extent  as  frozen 
beef  and  mutton.  Cut  meats  may  also  be  kept  without  curing  by 
packing  in  brine  and  storing  at  about  15°  F.,  until  it  it  desired  to 
cure  them  in  the  regular  manner.  Cuts  packed  in  a  light  brine 
and  kept  slightly  above  the  freezing  point  for  a  short  time  are 
sometimes  sold  as  "partly  cured"  meats. 

Fresh  pork  cuts  are  taken  more  or  less  from  all  classes  of 
hogs.  Since  the  pork  loin  is  by  far  the  leading  fresh  cut,  light 
loin  hogs  are  more  extensively  used  for  fresh  pork  than  any  other 
class.  The  varying  demand  for  loins  determines  to  a  considera- 
ble extent  the  method  of  cutting  other  classes  of  hogs  from  time 
to  time.  Tenderloins  and  spareribs  are  also  primarily  fresh  cuts. 
Skinned  shoulders,  shoulder  butts,  hams,  bellies,  fat  backs,  and 
raw  leaf  fat  are  sold  fresh  to  a  small  extent.  Some  packers  pur- 


264 


BULLETIN  No.  147 


[July, 


\ 


FIG.  61.    PORK  CUTS. 


ENGLISH  CUTS 

A.  Long-cut  ham  • 

B.  Long  side  or  middle 

DOMESTIC  CUTS 

1.  Short-cut  ham 

2.  Loin 

3.  Belly 

4.  Picnic  butt 

5.  Boston  butt 


9. 


Jowl 
Hock 
Fat  back 
Clear  plate 


2,  3,  8. 
4,7. 
5,9. 
8,9. 


Side 

Picnic  shoulder 
Shoulder  butt 
Long  fat  back 


2, 8.     Back 


4,5,7,9.    Rough  shoulder 


zp/o]  MARKET  CLASSES  AND  GRADES  OF  MEAT  265 

chase  their  raw  material  in  the  form  of  fresh  cuts,  such  as  bellies, 
hams,  picnics,  leaf  and  back  fat,  and  convert  them  into  smoked 
meats,  lard  and  other  products  bearing  the  trade-mark  of  the 
packer. 

Dry-Salt  Meats  are  domestic  cuts  made  from  heavy  fat  pack- 
ing and  loin  hogs,  cured  and  shipped  in  coarse  salt,  and  with  a 
few  exceptions,  pumped*  before  salting.  These  are  distinct  from 
"English"  meats  both  as  to  selection  and  packing.  The  cuts  that 
are  sold  in  this  form  are  heavy  sides,  bellies,  shoulders,  fat  backs, 
plates  and  jowls.  The  same  cuts,  and  particularly  bellies  and 
short  clear  sides,  are  also  quoted  as  bacon  meats,  which,  after  be- 
ing cured  in  dry  salt  are  smoked  before  shipping.  The  term 
Bacon,  when  used  as  a  prefix,  refers  to  dry-salt  meats,  while 
Smoked  Meats, as  described  below,  are  cured  in  sweet  pickle.  Dry- 
Salt  and  Bacon  Meats  are  generally  shipped  loose,  but  are  some- 
times put  up  in  boxes  containing  25  to  500  pounds. 

Barreled  or  Plain-Pickled  Pork  is  packed  in  plain  salt  brine 
in  tight  barrels  (18"  x  29")  at  200  pounds  net  weight  of  cured 
pork  per  barrel  (355  pounds  gross).  The  strength  of  brine  is 
varied  somewhat  according  to  the  cuts  of  pork  and  their  destinar 
tion.  The  regulation  of  the  Chicago  Board  of  Trade  governing 
standard  barreled  pork  (except  prime  mess)  is  as  follows:  "Be- 
tween October  i,  and  the  last  day  of  February,  f  inclusive, 
190  Ibs.,  and  between  March  ist  and  September  3Oth,  inclusive, 

193  Ibs.,  of  green  meat shall  be  packed  in  each  barrel, 

with  not  less  than  40  Ibs.  of  coarse  salt  and  barrel  filled  with 
brine  of  full  strength;  or  40  Ibs.  of  coarse  salt  and  in  addition 
thereto  15  Ibs.  of  salt  and  barrel  filled  with  cold  water".  Stan- 
dard prime  mess  pork  is  packed  20  pounds  salt  and  12  ounces  of 
saltpetre  per  barrel,  otherwise  as  above.  Barreled  pork  is  made 
largely  from  sides  of  Packing  and  Heavy  Loin  Hogs,  and  con- 
sists principally  of  mess,  fat  back  and  belly  pork  of  various  grades. 
A  much  smaller  proportion  of  the  pork  supply  is  barreled  than 
formerly. 

Sweet- Pickled  (S.  P.)  Meats  are  cured  in  sweet  brine.  Stan- 
dard cuts  of  this  class  are  packed  as  follows  for  delivery  on  the 
Chicago  Board  of  Trade :  "300  Ibs.  block  weight  shall  be  packed 
in  each  tierce  with  either  22  Ibs.  of  salt,  3  quarts  of  good  syrup, 

*Brine  is  injected  into  the  meat  by  means  of  a  perforated  hollow  needle 
attached  to  a  force-pump. 

This  period  of  5  months  is  known  in  the  pork  trade  as  the  "winter  pack- 
ing season",  and  the  balance  of  the  year  as  the  summer  season.  Formerly, 
wholesale  pork  packing  was  limited  almost  entirely  to  the  winter  season,  but 
with  improved  facilities  packers  now  handle  about  three-fifths  of  the  annual 
supply  during  the  "summer  season". 


266  BULLETIN  No.   147  [July, 

12  ounces  of  saltpetre  and  tierce  filled  with  water,  or  tierce  filled 
with  sweet  pickle  according  to  above  standard".  Various  modifi- 
cations of  this  formula  are  used  for  meats  not  intended  for  reg- 
ular delivery.  After  curing,  sweet-pickled  meats  are  commonly 
packed  in  slack  barrels  or  boxes,  or  sold  loose,  but  are  also  sold 
in  tierces  (21"  x  32"),  either  "pickle  on"  or  "drained".  The 
bulk  of  sweet-pickled  and  other  sugar-cured  meats  are  smoked 
before  they  reach  the  consumer,  as  explained  in  the  following 
paragraph.  A  percentage  of  heavy  sweet-pickled  hams,  picnics 
and  loins  are  also  boned  out  and  sold  as  "boiled  meats",  which 
are  described  below.  The  cuts  that  are  quoted  as  sweet-pickled 
meats  are  hams,  picnics,  New  York  cut  and  skinned  shoulders, 
boneless  butts,  light  bellies,  and  spareribs.  This  class  of  meats  is 
cut  principally  from  Butcher  Hogs  and  from  medium  and  light 
Packing  Hogs;  hams  and  picnics  from  all  classes  of  hogs  are 
generally  sweet-pickled. 

Smoked  Meats  are  sweet-pickled  as  described  above  and  smoked 
after  curing.  They  also  include  light  breakfast-bacon  bellies  that 
have  been  dry-cured  in  salt  and  sugar.  In  packing  smoked  meats, 
fancy  hams  and  breakfast-bacon  bellies  are  wrapped  in  "parch- 
ment" paper  or  canvas  and  packed  in  50  and  100  pound  boxes  and 
crates.  Other  grades  are  sold  either  unwrapped,  canvassed,  or 
wrapped  in  burlap,  and  either  loose,  boxed  or  crated  (100  to  500- 
pound  packages)  or  packed  in  slack  barrels  or  burlap  sacks. 

"English"  Meats  is  a  term  applied  to  certain  cuts  that  are  dry- 
cured  in  English  salt  and  saltpetre  and  primarily  adapted  to 
English  trade,  being  given  a  milder  cure  than  domestic  meats. 
They  are  made  principally  from  Bacon  Hogs.  The  leading  cuts 
of  this  class  are  "English"  bacon  sides,  long-cut  hams,  clear 
backs  and  bellies,  and  square  shoulders.  After  curing,  these 
cuts  are  packed  in  borax  or  salt  in  500  to  55O-pound  boxes 
for  export.  Borax  is  principally  used,  but  a  small  proportion  of 
"English"  cuts  such  as  long  clears  are  shipped  in  salt,  which  con- 
tinues the  curing  process  during  shipment.  English  meats  are 
generally  dried  or  smoked  lightly  after  their  arrival  at  British 
ports  before  being  sold.  Meats  cured  by  this  process  are  used  to 
some  extent  in  this  country,  being  quoted  as  "English-cured". 
Sweet-pickled  meats  are  also  shipped  in  borax  to  England  in  con- 
siderable quantities. 

Boiled  Meats  consist  of  hams,  picnic  shoulders  and  loins  cured 
in  sweet  pickle,  cooked  in  water  and  lightly  smoked.  The  cuts 
are  usually  boned  and  the  fat  trimmed  off  within  one-half  to  one 
inch  of  the  lean  before  cooking.  Boiled  hams  and  shoulders  are 
generally  quoted  as  "rolled  boneless"  cuts,  which  are  pressed  in 


jp/o]  MARKET  CLASSES  AND  GRADES  OF  MEAT  267 

a  cylindrical  form,  or  rolled  and  tied  with  cord.  Three  loins  are 
tied  together  for  boiling,  making  a  "loin  roll".  Boiled  meats  are 
made  principally  from  the  heavier  cuts  but  various  averages  are 
used,  including  12  to  3Opound  hams,  10  to  14-pound  picnics 
and  14  to  24-pound  loins.  The  boning  and  fatting  reduces  the 
weight  of  hams  about  25  percent  and  of  loins,  about  60  percent. 

Grading  Pork  Cuts 

The  grading  of  pork  cuts  is  more  complex  than  that  of  other 
meats  since  it  involves  not  only  their  quality,  shape,  proportions  of 
fat  and  lean,  and  weight,  but  also  the  styles  of  cutting  and  meth- 
ods of  packing  by  which  they  are  prepared  for  different  classes 
of  trade.  Many  of  the  grade  names  refer  merely  to  different 
methods  of  cutting  and  curing;  but  since  they  are  applied  only 
to  cuts  of  specified  quality,  thickness  or  weight,  the  grades  are  in 
reality  based  on  the  latter  factors  to  a  large  extent.  The  various 
cuts  differ  considerably  as  to  methods  of  grading;  consequently 
an  adequate  explanation  of  the  factors  involved  and  their  rela- 
tive importance  can  be  presented  only  by  describing  the  grades 
of  each  class. 

HAMS 

Hams  are  of  two  general  kinds,  short-cut  and  long-cut.  The 
former  are  made  from  comparatively  fat,  plump  hams,  trimmed 
short  and  round  at  the  butt,  and  the  shank  cut  off  at  the  hock 
joint.  They  are  sold  either  as  Regular  Short-Cut,  Skinned,  or 
Boneless  Rolled  Hams.  Long-cut  hams  are  lean,  long  hams,  with 
the  butt  left  full  and  the  foot  taken  off  at  the  first  joint  below  the 
hock.  The  principal  grades  are  Regular  Long-Cut,  Stafford  Cut, 
Manchester  Cut  and  Italian  Cut  Hams. 

Short-Cut  or  American  Cut  Hams  are  cut  from  the  side  mid- 
way between  the  hench-bone  and  slip-bone,*  trimmed  round  at  the 
butt,  cushionf  faced  full,  not  undercut  on  the  skin  side,  and  shank 
cut  off  in  or  above  the  hock  joint.  Until  1909  the  Board  of 
Trade  required  that  the  shank  be  cut  above  the  hock  so  as  to  ex- 
pose the  marrow.  Practically  all  hams  are  sold  as  sweet-pickled 
or  smoked  meats.  For  regular  delivery  on  the  Chicago  Board  of 
Trade  as  sweet-pickled  hams,  they  must  average,  in  lots,  not  to 
exceed  16  pounds,  with  no  ham  to  weigh  less  than  12  pounds  and 

*The  hench-bone  is  the  flat  portion  of  the  hip-bone  that  remains  attached 
to  the  socket  joint  of  the  ham  when  the  hog  is  split.  The  slip-bone  is  the 
portion  of  the  hip-bone  that  lies  in  contact  with  the  back-bone  near  the  end 
of  the  loin. 

tThe  cushion  is  the  fat  butt  of  the  ham  where  the  tail  piece  is  cut  off. 


268  BULLETIN  No.    147  [July, 

none  to  weigh  over  20  pounds.  The  short-cut  ham  is  the  leading 
ham  cut  and  has  to  a  large  extent  taken  the  place  of  the  long-cut 
ham  in  export  trade. 

Short-Cut  Hams  are  graded  by  packers  according  to  the  brand 
of  smoked  hams  for  which  they  are  suitable.  For  the  first  brand 
(known  as  "extra  selected"  or  "fancy"  sugar-cured  hams),  they 
are  selected  for  thickness  and  firmness  of  lean  meat,  plump,  well- 
rounded  shape,  solid,  white  fat  of  medium  thickness  (l|4  to  2 
inches  on  a  medium-weight  ham),  smooth,  soft  skin,  bright  color, 
small  shank  and  absence  of  bruises.  The  bulk  of  this  grade  weigh 
10  to  1 6  pounds,  10  to  12  pounds  being  most  desirable  for  family 
trade,  and  14  to  16  pounds  for  hotels  and  restaurants.  They  are 
cut  mainly  from  Butcher  Hogs.  Especial  care  is  taken  in  curing 
and  smoking  to  secure  the  proper  flavor  and  color.  See  Figs. 
62,  64.  Second  brand  or  second  grade  hams  (frequently  termed 
No.  z's)  are  deficient  in  one  or  more  of  the  points  just  mentioned, 
but  must  be  reasonably  good  in  general  quality  and  not  exceed- 
ingly deficient  in  any  particular.  Many  of  them  are  too  fat  for 
the  first  brand.  They  may  be  cut  from  any  class  of  hogs  but  the 
majority  are  made  from  Packing  hogs.  See  Fig.  62.  The  third 
brand  (also  known  as  "seconds"),  includes  those  from  which  a 
skin-bruise  has  been  removed,  also  thin,  light  hams  and  any  others 
which  lack  the  shape  and  quality  required  for  regular  meat  mar- 
ket trade.  They  are  cut  from  Packing  and  Common  Bacon  Hogs. 
See  Fig.  62.  "Easter  Hams"  are  light,  lean  hams  (6  to  10  pounds) 
of  good  shape  and  quality  but  cut  from  smooth  young  pigs.  They 
are  sugar-cured  and  smoked  and  are  in  season  during  the 
spring  and  early  summer. 

Skinned  Hams  are  cut  short  as  explained  above,  the  skin  is 
removed  down  to  the  shank  and  the  fat  trimmed  off  within  one 
inch  of  the  lean.  Until  1909  the  Board  of  Trade  regulation  re- 
quired the  fat  to  be  trimmed  off  within  one-half  inch  of  the  lean. 
They  are  made  from  fat  hams  of  first  and  second  grades,  weigh- 
ing from  12  to  30  pounds,  but  the  bulk  weigh  16  to  22  pounds. 
Many  skin-bruised  hams  are  also  skinned  in  order  to  remove 
bruises.  This  style  is  especially  adapted  to  making  boiled  hams, 
which  are  in  favor  with  restaurant  trade  for  slicing.  From  one- 
tenth  to  one-fourth  of  the  wholesale  supply  of  hams  are  skinned 
under  usual  market  conditions.  They  are  quoted  both  as  smoked, 
sweet-pickled  and  boiled  meats.  See  Fig.  62. 

Boneless  Rolled  Hams  are  made  from  sweet-pickled  short-cut 
hams  by  lifting  the  skin,  removing  the  surplus  fat  and  the  bone, 
and  pressing  or  tying  in  the  form  of  a  roll  with  skin  on.  They 
are  also  made  from  skinned  hams.  15  to  26-pound  hams  of  first 
and  second  brands  are  used,  and  they  are  sold  as  boiled  meats. 
See  Fig.  65. 


MARKET  CLASSES  AND  GRADES  OF  MEAT 


269 


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P 

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BULLETIN    NO.    147 


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FIG.  64.    SMOKED  SHORT-CUT  HAMS  (FIRST  BRAND). 


FIG.  65      BONELESS  ROILED  HAMS 


/p/o]  MARKET  CLASSES  AND  GRADES  OF  MEAT  271 

Regular  Long-Cut  Hams  are  lean,  long  hams  with  only  one- 
half  to  one  and  one-half  inches  of  outside  fat,  and  are  "cut  from 
the  side  by  separating  with  a  knife  the  hip-bone  from  the  rump, 
properly  rounded,  foot  unjointed  at  first  joint  below  the  hock".* 
They  are  not  faced;  and  the  butt  end  is  left  full,  which  gives  it 
a  flat,  lean  appearance.  (Fig.  63.)  Average  weights  are  10  to 
20  pounds  but  usually  above  14  pounds.  This  cut  is  made  from 
good  and  choice  bacon  hogs.  It  is  no  longer  extensively  used  but 
was  formerly  the  leading  export  ham.  "Yorkshire"  or  "York" 
Hams  are  cut  slightly  longer  at  the  butt  than  regular,  but  are  oth- 
erwise as  described  above.  Both  are  packed  as  explained  under 
"English  Meats."  "Smithfield"  or  Virginia  Style  Hams  are  long- 
cut  and  very  lean,  cured  hard,  spiced,  and  "aged"  for  several 
months  before  using.  They  weight  9  to  18  pounds. 

"Stafford"  Hams  are  cut  about  2  inches  shorter  at  the  butt 
end  than  regular  long-cut  hams,  hench-bone  taken  out  exposing 
the  socket  joint,  and  foot  cut  off  at  the  first  joint  below  the  hock. 
They  are  cut  from  good  and  choice  bacon  hogs  and  cured  for 
English  trade.  This  grade  is  made  principally  from  14  to  18- 
pound  hams.  See  Fig.  63. 

"Manchester"  Hams  are  a  very  lean  grade  of  long-cut  hams, 
comparatively  flat  in  shape,  butted  like  "Staffords",  and  averaging 
14  to  18  pounds.  See  Fig.  63. 

"Italian"  Hams  are  very  thin,  long  hams,  of  9  to  18  pounds 
average,  and  of  common  to  good  quality.  The  hench-bone  is  re- 
moved as  from  "Staffords",  the  leg  left  extra  long,  the  butt  trim- 
med like  American  or  short-cut  hams,  the  ham  pressed  flat,  dryr 
salt  cured,  smoked  dark  and  seasoned  with  pepper.  See  Fig.  63. 

Numerous  other  styles  or  grades  of  hams  which  were  for- 
merly packed  in  large  quantities,  especially  for  export  trade,  are 
no  longer  made  or  used  sufficiently  to  be  regarded  as  standard 
products. 

SIDES 

This  class  includes  various  grades  and  cuts  of  Short  Ribs, 
Short  Clears  and  "English"  Bacon  Sides. 

Short  Rib  Sides. — Regular  Short  Ribs  are  middles  of  hogs 
from  which  short  cut  hams  and  regular  or  New  York  shoulders 
have  been  taken  off,  with  back-bone  and  tenderloin  removed, 
hench-bone  and  breast-bone  sawed  or  cut  down  smooth  and  even 
with  face  of  side,  feather  of  blade  not  removed  and  no  incision 
made  in  the  side.  This  is  a  regular  Board  of  Trade  cut  and  is 
quoted  in  provision  reports  simply  as  "Ribs".  It  is  made  from 
medium  to  heavy  packing  hogs,  in  averages  from  25  to  80  pounds 

*Regulations  Chicago  Board  of  Trade. 


272  BULLETIN  No.  147  [July, 

but  principally  from  45  to  65  pounds.  On  the  Board  of  Trade 
regular  ribs  averaging  not  less  than  30  nor  more  than  60  pounds 
are  deliverable  at  contract  price;  those  over  60  and  not  over  70 
pounds  average  are  deliverable  at  a  discount  of  20  cents  per  100 
pounds;  those  over  70  and  not  over  80  pounds  are  discounted  30 
cents  per  100  pounds.  Regular  ribs  are  mainly  shipped  south 
either  as  dry-salt  or  bacon  meat.  The  manufacture  of  this  cut  is 
confined  largely  to  the  winter  months.  It  is  used  less  extensively 
in  proportion  to  other  cuts  than  formerly  but  is  still  the  leading 
side  cut,  over  one-half  the  stocks  of  sides  generally  consisting  of 
short  ribs.  Many  are  afterward  converted  into  other  cuts,  as 
extra  ribs,  extra  clears,  backs  and  bellies,  as  determined  by  cur- 
rent prices  of  the  various  cuts.  About  one-fifth  of  the  number 
of  heavy  hogs  packed  are  cut  into  short  ribs. 

Jobbing  or  Rough  Short  Ribs  consist  of  short  ribs  with  the 
back-bone  left  in,  the  hog  being  centre-split  leaving  equal  parts  of 
the  back-bone  on  each  side.  They  are  sold  at  a  discount  of  2  per- 
cent under  regular  ribs  and  must  average  not  less  than  30  nor 
more  than  50  pounds  for  Board  of  Trade  delivery.  See  Fig.  66. 

Hard  Short  Ribs  are  made  the  same  as  Jobbing  Ribs  except 
that  the  hog  is  split  so  as  to  leave  the  back-bone  all  on  one  side. 
The  side  containing  the  back-bone  is  known  as  the  Hard  Side  or 
Hard  Short  Rib  and  the  other  as  the  Soft  Side,  the  latter  being 
the  same  as  the  Regular  Short  Rib.  They  usually  weigh  50  to  70 
pounds,  are  cut  from  heavy  packing  hogs  and  are  sold  principally 
in  the  South  as  dry-salt  pork. 

Extra  Short  Ribs  or  "Extra  Ribs'5  are  made  from  Short  Ribs 
by  removing  the  loin.  They  average  35  to  50  pounds.  20  to  30 
percent  of  the  stocks  of  sides  usually  consist  of  Extra  Ribs.  See 
Fig.  66. 

Square  Cut  or  "English"  Short  Ribs  are  the  middles  of  hogs 
from  which  square  shoulders  and  long-cut  hams  have  been  cut, 
thus  making  the  side  shorter  than  a  regular  rib.  square-cut  and 
with  the  feather  of  the  blade-bone  out.  They  are  selected  from  the 
better  grades  of  medium  weight  packing  hogs,  and  average  20 
to  30  pounds.  They  are  cured  in  English  Salt  and  handled  like 
other  "English"  Meats. 

Short  Clear  Sides.  Regular  Short  Clears  are  made  from  reg- 
ular short  ribs  by  removing  the  ribs  and  cutting  reasonably  square 
at  each  end.  They  are  graded  and  handled  in  the  same  manner 
as  short  ribs.  Short  Clears  average  30  to  70  pounds  and  to  grade 
regular  must  average  not  less  than  35  pounds.  Their  use  has 
declined  to  a  large  extent  in  recent  years  as  compared  with  cer- 
tain other  cuts,  and  only  i  to  5  percent  of  the  stocks  of  sides  are  of 
this  kind.  It  is  primarily  a  domestic  cut  but  is  exported  to  some 


MARKET  CLASSES  AND  GRADES  OF  MEAT 


273 


3 

31 

a* 

o 
ft 


274  BULLETIN  No.    147  [July, 

extent.  See  Fig.  66.  Square-Cut  Short  Clears  are  the  same  as 
Square-Cut  Short  Ribs  except  the  ribs  are  taken  out. 

Extra  Short  Clear  Sides  or  "Extra  Clears"  are  made  the  same 
as  short  clears  except  that  the  loin  is  also  removed.  They  may  be 
made  from  extra  short  ribs  by  cutting  out  the  ribs.  The  pieces 
weigh  25  to  60  pounds,  and  must  average  not  less  than  30  nor 
more  than  60  pounds  to  grade  regular.  10  to  20  per  cent  of  the 
stocks  of  sides  are  usually  made  up  of  this  cut.  See  Fig.  66. 

"English"  Bacon  Sides.  These  so-called  sides  or  long  mid- 
dles include  both  the  side  and  shoulder,  and  in  one  instance  (Wilt- 
shires)  the  ham  is  also  included.  They  are  cured  and  packed  as 
described  under  "English  Meats",  and  after  arrival  in  Great 
Britain  are  usually  made  into  "rolled  sides",  which  are  dried  for 
English  trade,  but  in  Scotland  are  usually  smoked.  American 
packers  have  discontinued  manufacturing  several  cuts  not  men- 
tioned below  which  were  formerly  used  quite  extensively. 

"Wiltshire"  Sides  consist  of  the  side,  ham  and  shoulder  left 
together  in  one  piece;  the  blade-bone  is  taken  out,  foot  cut  off, 
the  shoulder  trimmed  the  same  as  "Cumberlands",  hip-bone  taken 
out,  not  backstrapped,  the  belly  trimmed  smooth  and  even,  and 
leg  of  the  ham  cut  off  below  the  hock  joint.  These  sides  aver- 
age 40  to  70  pounds  and  are  selected  especially  for  thickness  of 
lean  meat  with  a  light,  even  covering  of  fat  from  il/\.  to  2  inches 
thick,  not  exceeding  1 3A  inches  in  the  best  grades.  They  are  made 
exclusively  from  choice  lean  bacon  hogs,  and  are  the  highest  grade 
of  English  bacon  sides.  The  use  of  "Wiltshires"  has  greatly  de- 
clined in  recent  years.  They  are  shipped  principally  to  the  south 
of  England.  See  Fig.  67. 

"Cumberland"  Sides  "have  the  end  from  which  the  ham  is 
taken  cut  square ;  the  leg  cut  off  below  the  knee  joint ;  the  shoulder 
ribs,  neck-bone,  back-bone  and  blood  vein  taken  out;  breast-bone 
sawed  or  cut  down  smooth  and  even  with  the  face  of  the  side; 
and  should  not  be  back-strapped  or  flanked".*  They  are  made 
from  good  and  choice  bacon  hogs  and  average  20  to  60  pounds, 
but  the  bulk  run  25  to  40  pounds.  This  is  by  far  the  leading  ex- 
port side  cut,  and  being  made  in  various  grades  and  averages  is 
suitable  for  converting  into  other  English  side  cuts,  such  as 
"Yorkshires",  "Birmin^hams",  "Staffords"  and  others  which  are 
no  longer  generally  made  in  this  country.  See  Fig.  67. 

Long  Rib  Sides  are  made  the  same  as  Cumberlands  except  the 
shoulder  bones  are  taken  out  and  the  leg  cut  off  close  to  the  breast. 
The  average  weight  is  18  to  25  pounds.  They  are  made  from 
common  to  good  bacon  hogs,  and  shipped  to  Liverpool  for  distri- 
bution to  Ireland  and  Wales. 

*Regulations  Chicago  Board  of  Trade. 


MARKET  CLASSES  AND  GRADES  OF  MEAT 


275 


FIG.  67.    L,ONG  SIDES. 


Wiltshire 
Long-  Clear 


Cumberland 
Yorkshire 


Dublin 
Staffordshire 


276  BUI-LETIN  No.    147  [July, 

Long  Clear  Sides  are  cut  the  same  as  long  ribs  and  in  addition 
have  the  ribs  taken  out.  For  English  trade,  they  are  made  from 
good  bacon  hogs  weighing"  120  to  160  pounds  dressed,  and  the 
sides  weigh  18  to  26  pounds.  See  Fig.  67.  For  regular  Board 
of  Trade  delivery  they  must  average  not  less  than  45  pounds.  The 
latter  are  used  in  domestic  trade  and  Continental  Europe,  and  are 
made  from  the  heaviest  bacon  hogs  and  from  comparatively  lean 
butcher  hogs.  This  cut  is  used  to  some  extent  both  in  export  and 
domestic  trade,  but  much  less  than  formerly.  Extra  long  clears 
are  made  like  long  clears  except  that  the  loin  is  also  removed. 
They  are  seldom  used. 

"Dublin"  Middles  are  thin  lean  sides  cut  like  "Cumberlands" 
and  in  addition  the  leg  cut  off  close  to  the  breast.  They  are  made 
from  light,  common  bacon  hogs  and  pigs.  The  sides  weigh  12 
to  20  pounds.  See  Fig.  67. 

BELLIES 

The  grades  of  this  cut  are  Dry-Salt,  Si^ect-Picklc,  Breakfast- 
Bacon  and  "English"  Bellies. 

Dry-Salt  Bellies  are  made  from  short  rib  sides  of  mixed  pack- 
ing hogs  by  cutting  off  the  back.  For  delivery  on  the  Board  of 
Trade  they  must  be  "well  cut  and  trimmed ;  no  bellies  that  are 
coarse,  bruised,  soft  or  unsound  shall  be  accepted".*  However, 
they  are  not  as  closely  trimmed  as  sweet-pickle  bellies.  They 
are  made  in  averages  from  10  to  45  pounds.  About  two-thirds 
of  the  stocks  of  bellies  at  Chicago  usually  consist  of  this  grade. 
They  are  quoted  as  Dry-Salt  Rib  and  Dry-Salt  Clear  Bellies,  the 
latter  having  the  ribs  removed  and  being  made  usually  from  bel- 
lies weighing  less  than  25  pounds.  When  smoked  they  are  known 
as  "Bacon  Meats".  See  Fig.  68. 

Sweet-Pickle  Bellies  are  made  from  butcher,  bacon  and  good 
packing  hogs,  being  "well  cut  and  trimmed,  to  average,  in  lots, 
not  to  exceed  14  pounds".*  The  edges  are  squared  and  trimmed 
more  closely  than  Dry-Salt  bellies.  They  are  made  in  6  to  14 
pound  averages,  packed  the  same  as  sweet-pickled  hams  and  sold 
either  as  sweet-pickled  or  smoked  meats.  About  one-third  of  the 
supply  of  bellies  are  sweet-pickled.  They  are  quoted  both  as 
Rib  and  Clear  Bellies,  the  latter  having  the  ribs  removed.  See 
Fig.  68. 

Breakfast-Bacon  Bellies  are  clear  bellies  cut  from  bacon  or 
light  butcher  hogs  and  selected  with  reference  to  firmness,  color, 
proportions  of  fat  and  lean,  smooth  skin  and  general  quality. 
They  are  trimmed  still  more  closely  than  the  regailar  sweet-pickled 
bellies.  Selected  bellies  of  this  class  weighing  4  to  10  pounds  are 

*Regulations  Chicago  Board  of  Trade. 


MARKET  CLASSES  AND  GRADES  OF  MEAT 


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BULLETIN  No.   147 


[July, 


known  as  Fancy  or  Special  Breakfast  Bacon  Bellies  and  are  made 
into  the  best  brands  of  sugar-cured  breakfast-bacon.  They  are 
carefully  selected,  dry-cured  in  air-tight  boxes  and  smoked  lightly. 
The  second  brand  includes  bellies  that  are  too  fat  for  fancy  ba- 
con, or  which  lack  the  necessary  firmness  of  flesh  and  thin  smooth 
skin.  They  weigh  4  to  16  pounds.  The  third  brand  is  made 
from  bellies  weighing  6  to  18  pounds  that  are  either  slightly 
bruised,  or  too  deficient  in  general  quality  for  the  second  brand. 
See  Figs.  68,  70. 

''English"  Bellies  are  clear  bellies  weighing  10  to  20  pounds, 
cut  from  choice  heavy  bacon  hogs  and  light  butcher  barrows,  and 
selected  for  firmness  and  a  large  proportion  of  lean.  They  are 
cut  square  on  all  edges  and  packed  as  explained  under  "English 
Meats".  See  Fig.  68. 

BACKS 

The  grades  of  backs  are  Short  Rib,  Short  Clear,  Short  Fat 
and  Long  Fat  Backs. 

Short  Rib  Backs  are  made  from  short  rib  sides  by  cutting  off 
the  belly;  they  therefore  contain  the  loin,  back  fat  and  back-ribs 
but  not  the  back -bone  nor  tenderloin.  It  is  a  dry-salt  cut,  weigh- 
ing 25  to  45  pounds  and  is  not  commonly  made.  Hard  Backs  are 
made  from  hard  rib  sides,  thus  containing  the  back-bone.  "Eng- 
lish" Rib  Backs  are  made  from  Square  Short  Ribs,  and  average 
12  to  20  pounds.  See  Fig.  69. 

Short  Clear  Backs  are  "made  from  the  sides  of  smooth  hogs 
from  which  the  bellies  have  been  cut,  back-bone  and  ribs  taken  out 
and  the  lean  left  on,  tail-bone  sawed  off  even  with  the  face  of 


FIG.  70.    SMOKED  BREAKFAST-BACON  BELLIES  ( FIRST  BRAND). 


1910}  MARKET  CLASSES  AND  GRADES  OF  MEAT  279 

the  meat,  and  trimmed  smooth  and  square  on  all  the  edges".* 
They  are  cut  from  medium  and  heavy  packing  hogs,  dryr-salted 
and  sold  largely  in  continental  Europe.  The  weights  run  from  16 
to  40  pounds.  "English"  Short  Clear  Backs  are  lighter  than  reg- 
ulars, averaging  10  to  20  pounds,  and  are  shorter  at  the  butt  end, 
being  cut  off  in  front  of  the  hip-bone.  They  are  packed  like  other 
English  meats.  See  Fig.  69.  Pickled  Clear  Backs  are  short 
clear  backs  of  light  weight  and  lean  quality.  They  weigh  6  to  10 
pounds  and  are  sweet-pickled,  smoked,  and  sold  as  "Loin  Back 
Bacon"  or  "Breakfast  Bacon  Backs".  See  Fig.  69. 

Short  Fat  Backs  are  "made  from  the  sides  of  heavy,  well- fatted 
hogs  from  which  the  bellies  have  been  cut,  back-bone  and  ribs 
taken  out  and  all  the  lean  taken  off,  to  be  trimmed  smoothly  and 
properly  squared  on  all  the  edges".*  This  is  one  of  the  leading 
back  cuts.  It  is  made  from  packing  and  loin  hogs  when  cutting- 
pork  loins,  and  is  usually  quoted  as  a  dry-salt  cut  in  8  to  20  pound 
averages.  See  Fig.  69. 

Export  Short  Fat  Backs  have  the  blade-bone  taken  out,  are 
more  closely  trimmed  and  squared  than  domestic  backs  and  are 
made  principally  in  heavy  averages,  16  to  40  pounds.  Paprika  Fat 
Backs  are  thin,  light  fat  backs,  weighing  4  to  8  pounds.  They  are 
dry-salted  and  seasoned  with  paprika. 

Long  Fat  Backs  consist  of  "the  upper  half  of  the  side  cut  thru 
the  centre  of  the  ribs  from  the  ham  to  and  including  the  shoulder, 
with  the  loin  and  blade-bone  taken  out,  trimmed  smoothly  and 
squared  on  all  edges".*  It  is  a  dry-salt  cut,  not  as  commonly  made 
as  formerly  and  used  only  for  export  trade.  See  Fig.  61. 

LOINS 

Loins,  consisting  of  the  back  with  the  fat  trimmed  off,  are  sold 
either  as  Regular  Pork  Loins  or  as  Loin  Rolls. 

Pork  Loins  are  made  from  sides  of  loin  hogs,  with  the  belly 
and  back-fat  cut  off;  they  contain  the  back-bone,  back-ribs  and 
tenderloin,  and  have  but  a  small  amount  of  fat  (one-fourth  to  one- 
half  inch)  on  the  outside.  The  loin  is  the  leading  fresh  pork  cut, 
and  as  it  is  retailed  entirely  in  the  form  of  chops  and  roasts,  it 
must  have  reasonably  good  shape,  bright  color,  firm,  fine-grained 
flesh  and  good  quality  of  bone.  Loins  are  made  principally  from 
butcher  hogs,  but  also  to  some  extent  from  good  packing  and 
heavy  bacon  hogs.  The  weights  of  regular  pork  loins  are  8  to 
1 8  pounds  and  the  price  usually  varies  inversely  as  the  weight, 
except  occasional  loins  that  are  graded  No.  2  on  account  of  dark 
color  or  coarseness  of  flesh  and  bones.  14  pounds  is  the  heaviest 

*Regulations  Chicago  Board  of  Trade. 


280  BULLETIN  No.   147  [July, 

average  generally  used  for  fresh  trade,  and  a  few  are  made  as 
light  as  4  to  6  pounds.  See  Fig.  66b.  Extra  or  Long  Pork  Loins 
include,  in  addition  to  the  regular  loin,  the  top  or  lean  butt  of  the 
shoulder,  but  this  cut  is  seldom  made. 

Tenderloins  consist  of  short  round  muscles  lying  underneath 
and  on  each  side  of  the  back-bone;  they  are  attached  to  the  "slip- 
bone"  and  extend  from  the  loin  butt  almost  to  the  last  rib.  They 
weigh  one-fourth  to  one  pound  each,  but  those  weighing  three- 
fourths  pound  or  over  are  most  extensively  used.  They  are  cut 
from  hogs  that  are  too  heavy  and  rough  to  yield  regular  pork 
loins,  and  from  which  short  ribs,  mess  pork  and  boneless  loins 
are  made.  The  tenderloin  is  sold  only  as  a  fresh  cut. 

Loin  Rolls  are  made  from  heavy  loins  (15  to  22  pounds)  by 
boning  them  completely,  tying  three  boneless  loins  together  length- 
wise in  the  form  of  a  roll,  curing  in  sweet  pickle,  smoking  and 
boiling.  Light  No.  2  loins  are  also  packed  in  this  manner  in 
smaller  quantities.  Loin  rolls  are  used  by  restaurants  and  deli- 
catessen shops. 

SHOULDERS 

The  standard  grades  are  Rough,  Regular,  Picnic,  New  York 
Cut,  Skinned,  Square,  Neiu  Orleans  Cut  and  Boneless  Rolled 
Shoulders. 

Rough  Shoulders  are  unt rimmed  shoulders  as  cut  from  the 
hog,  separated  from  the  side  between  the  first  and  second  ri£>s 
and  with  the  jowl  cut  off  square.  They  are  quoted  as  fresh  meats 
but  are  not  extensively  used.  See  Fig.  72. 

Regular  Shoulders  are  "cut  as  close  as  possible  to  the  back 
part  of  the  forearm  joint  without  exposing  the  knuckle,  (leaving 
2  ribs  on  the  shoulder),  butted  off  square  on  top,  the  neck-bone 
and  short  ribs  taken  out,  neck  squared  off,  blood  vein  lifted  and 
cut  out,  breast  flap  cut  off  and  foot  cut  off  on  or  above  the  knee 
joint".*  They  are  made  principally  from  hogs  that  are  too 
heavy  and  rough  for  New  York  style  shoulders,  and  at  times 
when  the  supply  of  picnics  exceeds  the  demand.  About  15  per- 
cent of  the  stocks  of  shoulders  generally  consist  of  Regulars,  of 
which  about  one-third  are  handled  as  dry-salt  shoulders,  averag- 
ing 15  to  20  pounds,  and  about  two-thirds  as  sweet-pickled  shoul- 
ders averaging  12  to  16  pounds.  Sausage  Shoulders  are  regular- 
cut  shoulders  which  are  unsuitable  for  dry-salt  or  sweet-pickle  be- 
cause of  being  trimmed  to  remove  bruises,  cut  from  "shoulder- 
stuck"  hogs,  or  otherwise  deficient,  and  are  used  for  the  purpose 
which  their  name  indicates.  Bladed  Shoulders  are  cut  the  same 

*Regulations  Chicago  Board  of  Trade. 


MARKET  CLASSES  AND  GRADES  OF  MEAT  281 

as  Regulars  except  the  shoulder-blade  is  taken  out  and  the  corners 
rounded.     Comparatively  few  are  cut  in  this  manner. 

Picnics  or  Calas  (formerly  termed  California  hams)  are  cut 
2^2  ribs  wide,  trimmed  and  packed  as  follows :  "Shank  cut  off 
above  the  knee  joint,  trimmed  as  full  on  the  face  (lean  surface) 
as  possible,  butt  taken  off  to  the  edge  of  the  blade,  well  rounded 
at  the  butt  in  the  shape  of  a  ham,  breast  flap  taken  off,  and  trim- 
med close  and  smooth,  reasonably  uniform  in  size,  and  to  average, 
in  lots,  not  to  exceed  12  pounds.  300  pounds  block  (green)  weight 
shall  be  packed  in  each  tierce.  Pickle  the  same  as  used  for  hams".* 
They  are  cut  from  good  packing  and  butcher  hogs,  averaging  4 
to  14  pounds,  but  principally  8  to  12  pounds,  and  are  sold  almost 
entirely  as  sweet-pickled,  smoked  and  boiled  meats.  The  lighter 
averages  (4  to  8  pounds)  are  sometimes  termed  Boston  Shoul- 
ders, and  were  formerly  butted  shorter  than  Calas  and  only 
slightly  rounded;  but  Chicago  and  other  western  packers  now 
trim  them  like  Calas  and  designate  both  as  Picnics.  About  85 
percent  of  the  wholesale  supply  of  shoulders  are  made  into  Pic- 
nics. See  Fig.  74.  Skinned  Picnics  are  made  from  the  fat- 
ter grades  of  Picnics  by  removing  the  skin  and  trimming  the  fat 
off  within  one-half  inch  of  the  lean.  They  average  6  to  10  pounds, 
and  are  sold  largely  as  Boiled  Meats. 

New  York  Cut  Shoulders  are  cut  two  ribs  wide,  butted  one 
inch  from  blade-bone,  trimmed  smooth,  neck  and  breast  flap  cut 
off,  and  shank  cut  off  between  knee  and  brisket.  8  to  1 4-pound 
grades  are  made  for  domestic  trade  and  the  bulk  weigh  10  to  12 
pounds,  but  heavier  weights  up  to  18  pounds,  are  exported.  They 
are  made  principally  from  butcher  and  packer  hogs,  and  are 
quoted  as  fresh,  smoked  and  sweet-pickled  meats.  They  are  not 
as  extensively  used  as  formerly  in  proportion  to  other  cuts.  See 
Fig.  72. 

Skinned  Shoulders  are  cut  similar  to  New  York  Cut  Shoulders 
and  in  addition  the  skin  is  taken  off  down  to  the  shank  and  the  fat 
trimmed  off  close  to  the  lean.  They  weigh  6  to  16  pounds,  and 
are  sold  fresh,  sweet-pickled  and  smoked.  They  are  the  lead- 
ing fresh  shoulder  cut  used  in  city  retail  trade.  See  Fig.  72. 
Skinned  shoulders  with  the  shank  cut  off  close  to  the  breast  are 
termed  "Chicago  Shoulders",  or  "Skinned  Shoulders,  hock  off". 

Square  or  $-Rib  Shoulders  are  cut  three  ribs  wide,  squared  on 
all  sides,  neck-bones  out,  breast  flap  off,  foot  cut  off  at  the  knee 
joint,  butted  just  above  blade-bone,  and  so  trimmed  as  to  expose 
the  lean  as  much  as  possible.  This  is  the  leading  "English" 

*Regu!ations   Chicago  Board   of  Trade. 


282 


BULLETIN    NO.     147 


[July, 


CO 


/p/o]  MARKET  CLASSES  AND  GRADES  OF  MEAT  283 

shoulder  cut,  and  is  made  in  averages  from  10  to  20  pounds.  See 
Fig.  72. 

New  Orleans  Cut  Shoulders  are  made  il/2  ribs  wide,  smooth 
and  rounded  on  neck  end,  part  of  shoulder  butt  left  on  and  neck- 
bone  out.  They  are  cut  principally  in  12  to  14  pound  averages, 
but  are  also  made  from  10  to  16  pounds,  from  shoulders  that  are 
too  rough  and  fat  to  make  New  York  Cut  or  Picnic  Shoulders. 
This  is  a  dry-salt  cut.  See  Fig.  72. 

Boneless  Rolled  Picnics  are  made  from  heavy  picnics  by  lifting 
the  skin,  removing  the  surplus  fat  and  the  bone,  pressing  or  roll- 
ing and  tying  with  cord  in  the  form  of  a  roll  in  the  same  manner 
as  rolled  hams.  They  are  also  made  from  skinned  picnics.  Bone- 
less rolled  shoulders  are  made  similarly  from  regular  shoulders. 
They  are  sold  as  boiled  meats. 

BUTTS  AND  PLATES 

Butts  are  cut  from  the  end  or  top  of  the  shoulder  and  from 
the  jowl.  Plates  are  made  from  shoulder  butts.  The  various 
grades  of  these  cuts  are  Boston  Style,  Milwaukee  Style,  Boneless, 
Buffalo  Style,  New  York  Style,  Picnic,  Dry-Salt  and  Square-Cut 
Butts;  Regular  Plates,  Clear  Plates  and  Back  Plates. 

Boston  Style  Butts  are  the  ends  or  top  pieces  cut  from  heavy 
shoulders  when  making  picnics;  the  neck-bone,  ribs  and  surplus 
fat  being  removed  and  the  piece  trimmed  smooth.  They  include 
the  end  of  the  shoulder  blade.  Average  weights  are  3  to  7  pounds. 
They  are  principally  barreled  and  exported  to  Germany,  Denmark 
and  other  European  countries,  but  are  also  sold  fresh  for  domestic 
retail  trade.  See  Fig.  73. 

Milwaukee  Style  Butts  are  the  same  as  Boston  butts  with  the 
neck-bone  and  rib  left  on. 

Boneless  Butts  or  Lean  Butts  (also  termed  Cala  Butts)  consist 
of  the  lean,  boneless  portion  of  Boston  butts  between  the  blade- 
bone  and  neck-bone.  When  sweet-pickled  and  smoked  like  hams 
this  cut  is  known  as  a  Cottage  Style  butt.  See  Fig.  73. 

Buffalo  Style  Butts  are  cut  the  same  as  boneless  butts  except 
that  the  neck-bone  is  left  in.  They  are  used  fresh. 

New  York  Style  Butts  are  shoulder  butts  cut  from  picnics  of 
the  thinner  and  lighter  grades.  They  contain  the  neck-bone,  fat 
and  lean,  and  are  mainly  plain-pickled.  See  Fig.  73. 

Picnic  Butts  are  picnics  from  which  the  surplus  fat  and  the 
skin  are  removed  and  the  shank  cut  off  close  to  the  breast.  They 
are  not  trimmed  as  closely  as  regular  picnics.  See  Fig.  73. 

Dry-Salt  Butts  are  made  from  the  jowl  (lower  part  of  the 
neck  and  cheek),  with  the  edges  trimmed  smooth  and  the  piece 


284 


BULLETIN  No.   147 


[July. 


iMMH  Hk 

Hp^  ^P^w^ 


FIG.  74.    PICNICS. 


Heavy. 


Light. 


FIG.  75.    SPARE  RIBS  (FULL  SHEET).    SPARE  RIBS  (HALF  SHEET). 
DRY-SALT  BUTT  (JOWL).  SQUARE-CUT  BUTT.  VIRGINIA-STYLE  JOWL. 

pounded  flat.  They  weigh  3  to  5  pounds  and  are  usually 
packed  as  their  name  indicates  but  are  sometimes  barreled.  Vir- 
ginia-Style jowls  are  made  from  the  smaller  end  of  the  lower 
jaw  including  the  teeth,  and  are  made  both  tongue  in  and  tongue 
out.  They  are  sugar-cured  and  smoked,  but  are  not  extensively 
made.  See  Fig.  75. 

Square-Cut  Butts  are  also  made  from  the  jowl  but  are  more 
closely  trimmed  and  squared.  They  average  2  to  4  pounds  and 
are  dry-salted  or  barreled.  See  Fig.  75. 

Regular  Plates  are  made  from  shoulder  butts  by  removing  a 
boneless  butt,  thus  making  a  fat  piece  with  a  facing  of  lean,  con- 
taining the  end  of  the  blade-bone,  and  weighing  6  to  12  pounds. 
They  are  packed  either  as  dry-salt  or  barreled  pork.  When  made 
with  the  blade-bone  out  they  are  known  as  Antwerp  Backs.  See 
Fig-  73- 


jp/o]  MARKET  CLASSES  AND  GRADES  OF  MEAT  285 

Clear  Plates  are  made  from  shoulder  butts  by  removing  a  Bos- 
ton butt,  and  are  a  clear  fat  cut,  weighing  4  to  8  pounds.  They 
are  generally  dry-salted  but  are  barreled  to  some  extent.  See 

Fig1-  73- 

Back  Plates  are  made  from  long  fat  backs,  cut  into  keystone- 
shaped  pieces  weighing  3^/2  to  10  pounds.  They  are  both  bar- 
reled and  dry-salted. 

MISCELLANEOUS 

The  cuts  described  under  this  head  consist  principally  of  bar- 
reled pork  and  other  products  made  from  sides  and  shoulders  of 
packing  hogs.  They  may  be  grouped  as  follows :  Mess  Pork, 
Belly  Pork,  Back  Pork,  Shoulder  Pork,  Spareribs,  and  Trimmings. 

Mess  Pork.  Regular  Mess  Pork  is  "made  from  sides  of  well 
fatted  hogs,  split  thru  or  one  side  of  the  back-bone,  and  equal  pro- 
portions on  both  sides,  cut  into  strips  of  reasonably  uniform  width, 
properly  flanked  and  not  backstrapped''.*  See  Fig.  66a.  The  reg- 
ular proportion  of  flank  and  shoulder  cuts  must  be  included.  The 
strips  average  about  six  inches  in  width,  and  not  over  sixteen  pieces 
may  be  packed  in  a  barrel  for  regular  delivery.  Mess  Fork  is  made 
from  rough  and  heavy  packing  hogs  and  occasionally  from  heavy 
loin  hogs.  During  the  early  years  of  the  packing  industry  about 
one-third  of  the  wholesale  pork  product  consisted  of  mess  pork,  but 
it  has  been  largely  replaced  by  other  cuts  during  recent  years,  and  is 
now  only  two  or  three  percent  of  the  supply.  Approximately  one- 
half  of  the  Barreled  Pork  supply  is  Mess  Pork.  On  the  Board  of 
Trade  it  is  quoted  simply  as  "Pork".  Mess  pork  packed  between 
October  i  of  one  year  and  September  30  of  the  succeeding  year  is 
"newr  pork"  until  January  i  of  the  following  year,  and  is  thereafter 
termed  "old  pork".  Mess  pork  made  during  December,  January 
and  February  must  have  been  packed  at  least  ten  days  before  deliv- 
ery, and  that  delivered  during  the  period  from  March  to  Novem- 
ber, inclusive,  must  have  been  packed  at  least  thirty  days  before  de- 
livery to  grade  regular.  It  is  barreled  and  shipped  principally  to 
the  southern  states,  northern  lumber  camps  and  South  America. 
Shortj-cut  Mess  Pork  is  described  in  connection  with  Back  Pork. 

Light  Mess  Pork  is  "made  from  the  sides  of  reasonablv  well 
fatted  hogs ;  and  in  all  other  respects  to  be  cut,  selected  and  packed 
the  same  as  mess  pork,  except  that  as  many  as  22  pieces  may  be 
put  into  each  barrel". f  It  is  made  principally  from  medium  pack- 
ing hogs. 


*Regulations    Chicago    Board   of   Trade.     "Backstrapping"   refers   to   trim- 
ming a  strip  of  fat  from  the  edge  of  the  side,  above  the  back-bone. 

fRegulations  Chicago  Board  of  Trade. 


286  BULLETIN  No.    147  [July, 

Prime  Mess  Pork  is  made  from  the  shoulder  and  side,  contain- 
ing the  back-bone  and  ribs,  cut  into  square  pieces  of  about  4  pounds 
each.  The  shank  is  cut  off  close  to  the  breast.  In  making  this 
cut  the  side  is  split  lengthwise,  the  back  cut  into  about  six  pieces 
and  the  belly  into  four.  It  is  made  from  light  packing  hogs. 

Extra  Clear  Pork  is  "made  from  the  sides  of  extra  heavy,  well- 
fatted  hogs,  the  back-bone  and  ribs  to  be  taken  out,  (the  same  as 
short  clear  sides)  the  number  of  pieces  in  each  barrel  not  to  ex- 
ceed 14,  and  in  all  other  respects  to  be  cut,  selected  and  packed  in 
the  same  manner  as  mess  pork".*  This  cut  is  not  extensively  made. 

Clear  Pork  is  "made  from  the  sides  of  extra  heavy,  well-fatted 
hogs,  the  back-bone  and  half  the  ribs  next  the  back-bone  to  be  taken 
out,  the  number  of  pieces  in  each  barrel  not  to  exceed  14,  and  in 
all  other  respects  to  be  cut,  selected  and  packed  in  the  same  man- 
ner as  mess  pork".*  It  is  no  longer  in  general  use. 

Loin  Clear  Pork  is  "made  from  the  sides  of  medium-weight 
packing  hogs,  the  loin,  back-bone  and  back  ribs  being  removed  and 
belly  ribs  left  in".  It  consists  of  extra  short  ribs  cut  into  strips, 
and  is  also  known  as  Long-Cut  Clear  Pork.  The  pieces  average  five 
inches  in  width.  It  is  barreled  like  mess  pork  and  sold  especially 
to  New  England  trade. 

Belly  Pork.  Regular  Belly  Pork  consists  of  heavy,  fat  rib 
bellies  cut  into  5-inch  widths  and  packed  as  plain-pickled  pork  in 
barrels  of  50  to  60  pieces.  This  pork  is  made  from  the  same  grade 
of  bellies  as  Dry-Salt  Rib  Bellies. 

Brisket  Pork  Rib  is  made  by  cutting  a  5 -inch  strip  from  the 
brisket  end  of  heavy  rib  bellies  (14  to  20  pounds  average)  and 
packing  like  other  barreled  pork.  The  pieces  average  about  4 
pounds  each.  This  cut  is  made  only  when  it  is  desired  to  reduce 
the  weight  of  heavy  bellies.  Clear  Brisket  Pork  is  made  in  the 
same  manner  as  the  above  except  the  pieces  are  cut  from  clear 
bellies.  Fancy  Clear  Pork  is  a  strip  cut  from  the  brisket  end  of 
fancy  breakfast  bacon  bellies,  averaging  i  to  1 1/2  pounds  per  piece. 
It  is  either  barreled  or  sugar  cured  and  smoked. 

Lean  Belly  Pork  consists  of  lean  clear  bellies,  13  to  15  pounds 
average,  cut  into  three  pieces  each  and  barreled  in  plain  pickle. 

Back  Pork.  Regular  Back  Pork  (Short  Cut  Mess,  or  Family 
Back  Pork)  is  "made  from  the  backs  of  well-fatted  hogs,  after 
bellies  have  been  taken  off,  cut  into  pieces  of  about  6  pounds  each, 
and  in  all  other  respects  to  be  cut,  selected  and  packed  in  the  same 
manner  as  mess  pork".*  This  cut  contains  the  loin,  back-bone  and 
back  ribs,  with  tenderloin  out,  and  the  pieces  are  cut  6  inches  wide, 
averaging  4  to  6  pounds. 

*Regulations  Chicago  Board  of  Trade. 


/p/o]  MARKET  CLASSES  AND  GRADES  OF  MEAT  287 

Clear  Back  Pork  is  "made  from  the  backs  of  heavy,  well-fatted 
hogs,  after  bellies  have  been  taken  off,  and  back-bone  and  ribs 
taken  out,  cut  into  pieces  of  about  6  pounds  each,  and  in  all  other 
respects  to  be  packed  in  the  same  manner  as  mess  pork".*  In  other 
words,  it  consists  of  Short  Clear  Backs  cut  into  strips  about  6 
inches  wide,  and  is  the  same  as  Regular  Back  Pork  with  the  rib 
removed.  It  is  sometimes  called  Loin  Clear  Pork.  The  pieces 
average  2  to  7  pounds. 

Fat  Back  Pork  or  Short  Cut  Clear  Pork  is  made  from  short 
fat  backs  by  cutting  them  into  5-inch  strips.  The  pieces  average 
from  2  to  7  pounds  and  are  packed  like  mess  pork.  Speck  is  made 
from  fat  backs,  cut  into  strips,  cured  in  plain  pickle  and  seasoned 
with  pepper. 

Ham  Butt  Pork  (Loin  End  or  Rump  Pork)  consists  of  tri- 
angular pieces  cut  from  the  ham  end  of  short  clear  backs  or  sides 
and  includes  a  portion  of  the  tail-bone.  It  is  made  when  cutting 
short-cut  hams  and  "English"  sides,  or  when  it  is  desired  to  reduce 
the  weight  of  heavy  sides  or  backs.  It  is  packed  in  barrels,  the 
pieces  averaging  3  to  4  pounds. 

Shoulder  Pork  consists  of  the  following  products  made  from 
shoulders  and  butts : 

Extra  Prime  Pork  is  "made  from  heavy  untrimmed  shoulders 
cut  into  3  pieces;  the  leg  to  be  cut  off  close  to  the  breast,  and  in 
all  other  respects  to  be  cut,  selected  and  packed  in  the  same  man- 
ner as  mess  pork".*  The  pieces  average  about  4  pounds.  This 
and  the  preceding  cut  are  not  used  as  extensively  as  formerly. 

Boston  Style  Butt  Pork  is  made  from  Boston  Style  Butts  aver- 
aging 4  to  7  pounds,  packed  in  plain  pickle. 

Bean  Pork  or  Clear  Butt  Pork  is  made  from  the  jowl  or  fat 
cheek  of  the  hog,  cut  square,  trimmed  smooth  and  averaging  3  to 
4  pounds,  packed  in  plain  pickle. 

Spareribs  consist  of  the  ribs  trimmed  from  the  carcass  or  side 
with  as  little  lean  as  possible.  They  are  termed  "full-sheet",  ''half- 
sheet"  and  "back-bone"  spareribs  according  as  they  are  cut  from 
full  sides,  bellies  or  backs  respectively.  They  are  essentially  a  fresh 
pork  product  and  are  sold  in  retail  markets  especially  in  fall  and 
winter,  for  which  purpose  "half-sheet"  ribs  are  principally  used. 
Spareribs  are  also  quoted  as  sweet-pickled,  smoked  and  dry-salt 
meats.  They  are  packed  in  limited  amounts  in  sweet  pickle  at  times 
when  the  demand  for  fresh  spareribs  is  dull;  dry-salt  spareribs 
are  taken  from  dry-salt  sides  and  bellies  when  making  them  into 
clear  cuts  after  curing.  Both  pickled  and  dry-salt  spareribs  are 
smoked  to  a  limited  extent.  See  Fig.  75. 


*Regulations  Chicago  Board  of  Trade. 


288  BULLETIN  No.    147  [July, 

Various  other  meats  are  handled  and  quoted  similarly  to  spare- 
ribs.  Hocks  consist  of  the  shank  or  foreleg  cut  from  the  shoulder, 
including1  the  portion  between  the  breast  and  knee.  They  are  sold 
either  fresh  or  barreled.  Back-bones,  neck-bones  and  blade-bones 
are  to  some  extent  sold  fresh  like  spareribs,  but  are  usually  tanked. 

Trimmings  are  of  two  grades:  Special  Lean-  or  "A"  grade, 
and  Regular  or  "BM  grade.  Special  Lean  or  Berliner  Trimmings 
consist  of  the  larger  pieces  of  meat  with  fat  cut  off  and  are  used 
especially  for  making  Berliner  sausage.  The  regular  grade  is 
made  up  of  small  pieces  of  fat  and  lean,  miscellaneous  in  shape  and 
quality,  and  contains  about  40  to  50  percent  fat.  Both  grades  are 
almost  entirely  utilized  in  sausage  manufacture. 

LARD 

From  one-tenth  to  one-third  of  the  hog  carcass  is  made  into 
lard  in  large  packing-houses,  the  proportion  varying  with  the  rela- 
tive price  of  lard  and  grade  of  hogs.  The  standard  grades  are 
Kettle-Rendered  Leaf,  Kettle-Rendered,  Neutral,  Prime  Steam, 
Refined  and  Compound  Lard.  They  differ  as  to  the  kinds  of  fats 
they  contain,  methods  of  rendering,  color,  flavor  and  grain. 

KETTLE-RENDERED  LEAF  LARD 

This  consists  of  leaf  fat  only,  rendered  at  about  248°  F.  in 
open-jacketed  kettles,  without  the  addition  of  water  and  without 
subsequent  refining.  It  is  the  whitest  in  color  and  finest  in  grain 
and  flavor  of  all  grades  of  lard.  Kettle-rendered  lard  is  distin- 
guished from  other  kinds  by  the  wavy  or  fluffy  appearance  of  the 
surface,  known  as  a  "crinkly  top",  and  this  is  characteristic  es- 
pecially of  leaf  lard.  It  is  sold  principally  in  pails  of  various  sizes 
for  retail  trade.  Most  packing  firms  do  not  render  pure  leaf  lard 
but  make  the  leaf  into  Neutral.  Raw  leaf  fat  is  also  sold  fresh  to 
butterine  manufacturers  and  is  used  to  some  extent  by  retail  trade. 

KETTLE-RENDERED  LARD 

This  grade  is  made  from  back  fat  with  or  without  a  proportion 
of  leaf  or  "leaf  scraped''  lard,  (seldom  exceeding  20  percent)  and 
not  over  5  percent  of  lard  stearin.*  Ham- facing  fat  and  fat  trim- 
mings are  also  used  at  times.  It  is  rendered  in  either  open  or  closed 
kettles  but  not  under  pressure  nor  in  contact  with  live  steam.  The 

*Lard  stearin  is  the  residue  left  after  pressing  the  oil  from  lard.  Having 
a  high  melting  point,  it  is  usually  mixed  with  lard  during  the  summer  months 
or  when  shipping  to  a  warm  climate. 


/p/o]  MARKET  CLASSES  AND  GRADES  OF  MEAT  289 

open-kettle  product  is  sometimes  branded  "Country  Style  Lard". 
This  is  the  highest  grade  of  lard  made  in  most  packing  houses,  and 
is  excelled  in  whiteness,  grain  and  crinkly  appearance  of  the  sur- 
face only  by  genuine  leaf  lard.  Kettle-rendered  lard  more  readily 
becomes  rancid  than  refined  lard,  hence  flavor  and  keeping  quali- 
ties are  especially  important  in  this  grade.  It  is  made  in  com- 
paratively limited  quanities,  and  is  packed  in  3  to  50  pound  pails 
for  retail  trade,  50  to  80  pound  tubs,  and  tierces. 

NEUTRAL  LARD 

Neutral  Lard  is  made  from  leaf  or  back  fat  melted  in  water- 
jacketed  open  kettles  at  about  128°  F.,  at  which  temperature  the 
fat  partially  liquifies  without  cooking.  No.  i  Neutral  is  made 
from  leaf  fat  only.  When  dra\vn  off  and  strained  the  melted  fat 
is  tasteless,  free  of  acids  and  impurities,  smooth-grained  and  re- 
mains unchanged  in  odor  and  color.  It  is  sold  in  tierces  and  is 
used  principally  in  the  manufacture  of  butterine  or  oleomargarine. 
This  grade  of  lard  is  largely  exported,  Rotterdam  being  the  prin- 
cipal foreign  market  for  it.  No.  2  Neutral  lard  is  made  from  back 
fat  melted  in  the  same  manner  as  the  No.  i  grade.  It  is  not  as 
white  in  color  nor  as  fine  in  grain  but  is  used  for  the  same  same 
purposes  when  No.  i  Neutral  is  high  in  price. 

PRIME  STEAM  LARD 

Prime  Steam  Lard  is  made  from  fat  trimmings  (ham,  shoulder, 
belly,  jowl  and  head  fats),  internal  or  "killing  fats"  and  other  fat 
parts,  sometimes  including  entire  fat  backs,  jowls,  etc.,  rendered  in 
closed  tanks  under  about  40  pounds  direct  steam  pressure  (240°  F.) 
without  refining,  stirring  or  bleaching.  It  is  darker-colored  and 
coarser-grained  than  other  grades  of  lard,  and  is  the  form  in  which 
nog  fats  can  be  most  economically  stored  and  shipped.  It  is  stored 
in  tanks  and  tierces,  and  shipped  in  tierces  or  tank  cars.  Prime 
steam  lard  is  refined  before  using,  being  converted  into  other  grades 
of  lard  or  used  in  Compound.  Nine-tenths  or  more  of  the  lard 
made  at  Chicago  is  of  this  grade.  For  delivery  on  the  Board  of 
Trade,  "it  must  have  proper  color,  flavor  and  soundness  for  kee  > 
ing,  and  no  material  which  has  been  salted  must  be  included. 
Prime  steam  lard  of  superior  quality  as  to  color,  flavor  and  body 
may  be  inspected  and  labeled  as  'Prime  Steam  Lard,  choice  qual- 
ity' ".  When  rendered  from  cured  fats  such  as  sweet-pickled  ham 
and  shoulder  fat,  or  for  other  reasons  defective  in  color,  flavor  or 
grain,  it  is  graded  as  No.  2  Steam  Lard,  being  darker  in  color  and 
coarser  in  grain  than  the  regular  grade. 


290  BULLETIN  No.    147 

REFINED  LARD 

Refined  Lard  is  made  from  Prime  Steam  Lard  by  a  bleaching 
and  stirring  process,  consisting  of  rapid  agitation  with  fuller's 
earth  at  about  180°  F.,  followed  by  pressing  through  filter  cloths 
and  chilling.  A  proportion  of  lard  stearin,  not  exceeding  5  per- 
cent, may  also  be  added.  If  oleo  stearin,  tallow  or  more  than  5 
percent  of  lard  stearin  be  added,  the  product  may  not  be  labeled 
"Pure  Lard",  and  the  added  fats  must  be  named  on  the  package. 
It  is  sold  in  tierces,  barrels,  cans  and  pails,  and  is  packed  in  28  and 
56-pound  boxes  for  export. 

COMPOUND  LARD 

Compound  Lard  or  Lard  Compound  is  a  mixture  of  lard, 
stearin  or  other  animal  fat,  and  vegetable  oil  (usually  cottonseed 
oil).  All  the  ingredients  must  be  named  on  the  label,  and  the  pro- 
portion of  lard  must  equal  or  exceed  that  of  any  other  one  of  the 
ingredients. 

Note. — Compounds,  or  lard  substitutes,  differ  from  compound  lard  in  that 
they  contain  little  or  no  lard  but  are  composed  of  oleo  stearin,  lard  stearin 
and  tallow  mixed  with  refined  cottonseed  oil.  The  proportion  of  cottonseed 
oil  is  usually  80  to  85  percent.  The  amount  of  this  product  manufactured  is 
approximately  equal  to  that  of  lard.  It  is  packed  in  the  same  kinds  of  re- 
ceptacles as  refined  lard. 


UNIVERSITY  OF  ILLINOIS-URBANA 


